LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

GIFT    OF 

Class            ^ 

Elementary  School 
Curriculum 

FOURTH  AND  FIFTH  YEARS 


Reprinted  from  Teachers  College  Record 
January,   1907 


PUBLISHED   BY 

TEACHERS  COLLEGE 

COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

NEW    YORK 

Copyright,  1907,  by  Teacheri  CoUcge 


^^'i^ 
C] 


Teachers  College  Record 

Edited  by  James  E.  Russell 

Teachers  College  Record  is  a  serial  pubi: 
by  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  for  the  . 
presenting  to  students  of  Education,  and  to  the  pub. 
ally  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  history  and  princii- 
edu^ration,  of  educational  administration,  and  of  the  theory 
practice  of  teaching  as  advocated  and  followed   by  Teache. 
College  and  its  schools  of  observation  and  practice. 

ANNOUNCEMENT  OF  VOLUME  VIIL,  iW 

Continuing  the  present  series  of  articles,  the  May  number 
will  complete  the  outline  of  the  Curriculum  of  ^he  Horace 
Mann  Elementary  School  by  describing  the  work  of  he  s.x  h 
and  seventh  grades.  The  RECORD  will  also  issue  durmg  the 
year  a  number  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Dow  on  The 
Teaching  of  Fine  Arts "  and  one  by  Professor  Johnson  on 
"  Methods  of  Teaching  History." 

Published  bi-monthly,  except  July.  Subscription  price, 
$i.oo  per  annum;  single  numbers,  30  cents  ;  Post^ge  prepaid  I 
on  5  or  more  copies  a  discount  of  20  %  is  granted.  All  sub- 
rCptions  begin  with  the  current  number.  Back  numbers  wd 
be  supplied  on  request,  at  the  above  rates.  A  list  of  the 
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page  of  this  issue.     Advertising  rates  given  on  application. 

Address  all  communications  to  Teachers  College  Record 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City 


CONTENTS 


Grade  IV 


PAGB 

Introductory  Statement Henry  C.  Pearson —     v 

Reading  and  Literature Ida  E.  Robbins i 

Language Ida  E.  Robbins 7 

Penmanship     10 

Arithmetic Florence  M.  Marshall  1 1 

Geography Florence  M.  Marshall  16 

History Florence  M.  Marshall  2 1 

Nature-Study Ida  E.  Robbins 24 

Manual  Trainhig Lucy  H.  Weiser 29 

Art 1  Fourth  and  f  Ethelwyn  Miller 35 

Music y       Fifth        ■{  Helen  Latham 42 

Physical  Education  J       Grades       y  Elizabeth  Fotheringham  51 
Time  Schedule 54 

Grade  V 

Literature  and  Reading Mary  G.  Peabody 55 

Language Mary  G.  Peabody 60 

Arithmetic Lucy  Dickson 68 

Geography Mary  G.  Peabody 73 

History Mary  G.  Peabody 81 

Nature-Study Laura  B.   Underhill.  .  .   94 

Manual  Training Lucy  H.  Weiser 100 

Time  Schedule io4 


202516 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/elementaryschoolOOcolurich 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT. 

This  reprint  from  the  Teachers  College  Record  is  the  third  of  a 
series  that  describes  the  work  of  the  various  grades  of  the  Horace 
Mann  Elementary  School  as  it  is  now  carried  on.  The  first 
number  of  this  series  on  the  work  of  the  first  grade  appeared  in 
January,  1906  ^ ;  the  second  in  September.,  1906;  the  fourth  num- 
ber, describing  the  work  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades,  will 
appear  in  May,  1907. 

In  the  first  number  of  this  series  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Horace  Mann  School  on  certain  phases  of  elementary  education 
was  briefly  stated  in  an  article  entitled  "Controlling  Ideas  of 
the  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School,"  where  were  considered 
such  topics  as  The  Meaning  and  Aim  of  Education,  Moral  Edu- 
cation, Interest,  Nature  of  the  Recitation,  Correlation,  Nature 
of  the  Child,  and  School  Life.  This  article  is,  therefore,  an 
introduction  to  this  series,  but  is  not  reprinted  in  this  number. 

This  number  has  been  prepared  by  the  teachers  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  grades  with  the  assistance  of  an  advisory  committee 

Fourth  Grade  Teachers: 
Ida  E.  Robbins  Florence  M.  Marshall 

Fijth  Grade  Teachers: 

Mary  G.  Peabody  Laura  B.  Underhill 

Lucy  Dickson 

Special  Teachers: 
Lucy  H.  Weiser,  Manual  Training 
Ethelwyn  Miller,  Art 
Elizabeth  R.  Fotheringham,  Gymnasium 
Helen  Latham,  Music 

Advisory  Committee: 
Henry  C.  Pearson,  A.B  ,  Principal 
Frank  M.  McMurry,  Ph.D.,  Teachers  College 
Mary  F.  Kirchwey,  Sixth  Grade  Teacher 
«  Reprinted  as  separate  pamphlets,  price  fifty  cents  each. 


03 


Elementary   School    Curriculum 

FOURTH  AND  FIFTH    YEARS 

THE     CURRICULUM     OF     THE     HORACE 
MANN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


READING  AND  LITERATURE 
Grade  IV 

When  the  average  child  of  eight  or  nine  enters  the  fourth 
grade  of  the  Horace  Mann  School,  he  has  mastered  the  ordinary 
formal  elements  of  reading,  has  read  much  and  is  eagerly  demand- 
ing "more  books  to  read."  It  remains,  then,  to  help  him  to 
greater  speed  and  accuracy  in  silent  reading,  to  increase  his 
desire  and  power  to  give  pleasure  to  others  by  oral  reading,  to 
give  him  only  that  which  is  best  in  form  and  content,  and  so  to 
help  develop  in  him  a  taste  and  feeling  which  shall  reject  the 
trashy,  or  worse  than  trashy,  books  which  are  constantly  thrown 
in  his  way. 

It  is  not  easy  to  find  plenty  of  material  which  answers  all 
these  demands.  The  long  story  or  poem  is  most  often  used, 
because  it  sustains  the  interest  and  frequently  makes  the  most 
lasting  impression  on  the  memory.  Kingsley's  Water-Babies 
may  be  read  first,  because  the  vocabulary  is  not  too  difficult; 
the  majority  of  the  children  delight  in  its  mingHng  of  common 
and  marvellous  things;  the  ethical  element  is  strong,  but  never 
forced  beyond  the  point  where  the  child's  warmest  sympathy 
goes  out  to  "Tom"  and  his  animal  friends;  the  spirit  of  play 
and  adventure  holds  the  interest  throughout,  and  the  conversa- 
tional form  calls  for  animated  and  natural  reading.       We  use 

[I 


2  Elementary  School  Ciirriciiluui  [2 

the  Stickney  arrangement  published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  because  it 
omits  the  long,  scientific  passages  which  tire  children,  and 
also  gives  excellent  foot-notes  and  illustrations. 

At  this  age  children  are  intensely  interested  in  animal  life 
and  adventure.  W.  J.  Long's  Beasts  of  the  Field  gives  some  fine 
animal  stories  in  which  most  of  the  statements  are  not  beyond 
human  belief  and  observation.  As  each  story  is  read,  "Br'er 
Rab,"  "Meeko,"  the  squirrel,  and  "Tookhees, "  the  "fraid" 
little  mouse,  live  with  us  in  the  schoolroom  and  are  watched  and 
fed  by  the  children.  "Br'er  Bar,"  the  deer,  and  the  beaver 
are  visited  in  Bronx  Park. 

Ruskin's  The  King  of  the  Golden  River,  Baker  and  Carpenter's 
The  Fourth  Year  Language  Reader,  and  many  history  stories  may 
be  taken  if  time  permits. 

The  last  two  months  of  the  school  year  are  usually  given  to 
Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake.  Objections  are  often  made  by  out- 
siders that  it  is  much  too  difficult,  but  experience  proves  this 
false.  It  is  so  vividly  picturesque,  so  full  of  rapid  movement  and 
adventure,  and  so  really  simple  in  plot,  that  there  is  hardly  a 
child  who  does  not  become  enthusiastic  in  the  work.  We  have 
had  many  cases  of  children  who,  formerly  indifferent  or  timid 
readers,  became  the  good  readers  of  the  class  through  being 
filled  with  the  dramatic  spirit  and  rhythm  of  the  poem.  Often 
little  boys  who  "hate  poetry"  finally  say:  "Oh  well,  this  is  n't  like 
other  poetry." 

Other  poems  are  read  or  memorized,  such  as  Birds  of  Killing- 
worth,  The  Bell  of  Atri,  The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  The  Pied 
Piper  of  Hamlin,  and  various  Christmas  carols. 

Once  a  week,  or  oftener  if  time  can  be  saved  for  it,  the  teacher 
reads  aloud  such  stories  as  "The  White  Seal"  and  "Quigueru" 
from  the  Jungle  Books,  when  studying  in  geography  about  the 
Arctic  regions;  or  the  Uncle  Remus  Stories  by  Harris,  when 
studying  the  colonial  history  of  the  South. 

The  last  half  of  the  year  we  have  a  class  library  which  is 
thoroughly  enjoyed  by  the  children.  It  is  made  up  entirely  of 
books  loaned  by  the  children  and  teacher.  To  be  admitted  to 
this  limited  collection,  a  book  must  be  very  excellent  from  a 
general  literary  standpoint,  or  fairly  good  when  it  relates  to  such 
class  subjects  as  history,  geography,  and  nature. 

When  a  new  poem  or  passage  such  as  the  first  and  second 


3]  Reading  and  Literature  3 

stanzas  of  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  is  given  to  the  class,  the  teacher 
often  reads  it  aloud  first,  after  which  the  children  volunteer  to  read 
it.  The  class  is  encouraged  to  ask  questions,  and  when  it  seems 
good  to  have  the  teacher  ask  questions,  she  may  ask  such  as 
these:  "In  what  kind  of  a  country  is  this  hunt?  Name  all  the 
things  which  are  moving.  Close  your  eyes  and  see  the  pictures. 
What  colors  do  you  see?  What  sounds  do  you  hear?  Read 
aloud  the  lines  which  have  sound  in  them.  Read  the  lines 
which  tell  us  the  time  of  day." 

In  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  there  are  frequent  stanzas  which  it  is 
best  for  the  teacher  to  read,  letting  the  class  follow  in  their  books; 
or  she  may  give  the  substance  in  her  own  words,  letting  the 
children  comment  and  ask  questions.  We  do  this  with  all  of 
Canto  III  ("The  Gathering").  This  keeps  up  the  interest  while 
saving  time  for  more  intense  study  of  "The  Combat,"  where 
the  children  linger  over  every  word,  and  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously memorize  fine  couplets  or  whole  stanzas.  It  is  easy 
to  get  good  dramatization  work  here.  Often  the  boys  will 
voluntarily  memorize  "Fitz  James'  "  or  "Roderick  Dhu's"  part 
that  they  may  more  freeh^  give  such  lines  as  these : 

"Come  one,  come  all,  this  rock  shall  fly 

From  its  firm  base  as  soon  as  I. " 
or 
"These  are  Clan  Alpine's  warriors  true, 

And,  stranger,  I  am  Roderick  Dhu. " 

Then  comes  a  time  when  they  attempt  original  illustration 
in  charcoal,  and  frequently  we  get  them  as  good  as  those  figured 
on  the  following  page.  We  have  a  few  fine  photographs  of  The 
Lady  of  the  Lake  country  which  the  children  compare  with  their 
own  sketches,  and  often  they  bring  second  efforts  which  they 
have  made  at  home. 

In  every  class  of  thirty  children  there  will  be  poor  readers. 
These  are  given  a  choice  of  favorite  stanzas  to  be  prepared  at 
home  and  the  next  day  read  to  classmates.  In  no  other  way 
can  they  take  much  active  part  in  the  oral  reading  of  difficult 
material.  We  have  much  silent  reading  and  often  the  oral 
reproduction  in  the  child's  own  words,  but  not  where  it  might 
detract  from  the  impression  made  by  beautiful  English.  Often 
a  child  can  express  the  idea  he  has  gained  most  clearly  by  a  quick 


Elementary  Sehcol  Citrricnliuu 


[4 


Charcoal  sketch  to  illustrate  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake' 


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Charcoal  sketch  to  illustrate  "  The  Lady  of  the  Lake 


5]  Reading  and  Literature  5 

sketch  on  the  blackboard,  which  he  is  always  encouraged  to 
do.  Long's  story  of  The  Beaver,  where  the  three  kinds  of  dams 
are  described,  gives  such  an  opportunity;  and  in  the  manual  work 
one  or  more  of  the  varieties  are  often  made.  A  large  blackboard 
is  given  up  to  the  class  Here  the  children  may  draw  "Tom 
and  the  Lobster,"  "South-west  Wind,  Esquire,"  whole  rows  of 
prankish  btmnies,  or  fishing  smacks,  as  their  latest  interest 
dictates. 

At  the  first  of  the  year  an  estimate  of  the  class  taste  in 
poetry  may  be  obtained  by  letting  each  child  memorize  and  give 
a  favorite  poem  in  the  recitation  period  which  comes  once 
a  week.  Most  of  such  choices  are  fine,  but  occasionally  a  child 
prefers  onlv  the  comic,  and  declares  Mackay's  Miller  of  Dee 
"stupid,"  or  Stevenson's  Winter-time  "silly."  The  class  choice 
is  against  him,  however,  and  gradually  he  comes  to  do  better, 
though  he  may  never  make  a  poet.  This  recitation  hour  on 
Friday  is  welcomed  with  glee.  It  furnishes  a  chance  to  review 
old  favorites  of  past  years,  as  well  as  to  make  new  friends.  The 
class  hbrary  also  gives  good  training.  So  far  as  possible  the 
children  decide  what  books  shall  be  admitted  to  it,  but  the  teacher 
must  have  the  final  verdict.  A  librarian  is  elected  by  ballot. 
It  is  understood  that  this  child  must  be  a  regular  attendant, 
a  good  writer,  and  a  careful  handler  of  books.  He  or  she  must 
keep  a  record  of  the  library  list,  the  books  drawn,  and  the  time 
of  their  return.  Although  this  is  a  somewhat  laborious  position, 
as  all  the  work  must  be  done  before  school  in  the  morning, 
there  are  few  who  will  not  seek  the  honor. 

It  always  seems  hard  to  tear  ourselves  away  from  the  joys 
of  reading  to  give  time  to  the  more  formal  work,  but  this  we  do. 
The  drill  in  phonetics  is  continued,  and  many  enunciation 
exercises  are  given  from  such  things  as  dear  "Mother  Goose  "  and 
familiar  proverbs  and  comparisons.     For  example, 

"Haste   makes  w^aste." 

"Handsome  is  that  handsome  does." 

"Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together." 

or 
"As  fierce  as  a  tiger." 
"As  blind  as  a  bat." 
"As  greedy  as  a  pig." 


6  Elementary  School  CiirricnhiDi  [6 

These  are  sometimes  given  as  whispering  exercises.  Many  a 
merry  laugh  results,  but  seldom  are  our  feelings  hurt.  Little 
direct  voice  culture  is  given  outside  of  the  singing  class.  In 
extremely  bad  cases  we  give  special  work. 

When  at  the  end  of  the  year's  work  we  often  feel  much  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  children's  efforts,  we  must  seek  comfort  in 
a  backward  look.  Then  we  realize  that  they  have  gained  in  power 
to  get  and  give  pleasure,  that  they  have  become  better  critics 
of  books,  and  therefore  have  strengthened  their  small  armors 

against  much  which  might  injure  them  in  later  years. 

I.  E.  R. 


LANGUAGE 
Grade  IV 

The  class  of  children  who  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the 
Horace  Mann  School  naturally  do  good  English  work  where 
imagination  and  general  information  are  needed.  Perhaps  it  is 
partly  due  to  this  very  blessing  that  they  incline  to  ignore  the 
formal  side  of  their  written  work.  Our  problem,  then,  is  to 
strike  the  happy  medium  of  encouraging  and  developing  all 
natural  talent,  while  we  also  train  them  to  write,  spell,  punctuate 
and  form  sentences. 

Spelling.  The  children  are  given  lists  of  classified  words 
to  be  spelled  orally.  In  all  oral  spelling  careful  division  into 
syllables  is  very  helpful,  but  we  seldom  require  it  in  written 
work  where  it  leads  to  broken  and  slow  writing.  We  take 
pages  of  unclassified  words  and  let  the  children  group  them 
according  to  prefixes,  suffixes,  vowel  sounds,  silent  letters,  of 
rhyming  words.  The  habit  of  quick  observation  and  the  practice 
of  always  studying  the  correct  form  first  and  then  reproducing 
it  are  the  secret  of  good  spelling;  and  this  habit  we  try  to  form 
in  every  possible  w^ay.  In  working  with  word  meanings,  or 
common  homon^mis  the  children  study  the  correct  sentence 
form  first,  then  work  with  given  sentences  where  they  may 
fill  in  blanks  with  the  right  word.  After  the  necessary  study, 
the  dictation  exercise  of  words,  related  sentences,  a  fable,  or 
a  stanza  of  poetry  is  the  daily  test;  but  even  better  than  this 
is  the  writing  from  memory  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of  a  poem 
which  has  been  memorized,  because  here  there  can  be  no  temp- 
tation to  make  guesses. 

Sentence  Study  and  General  PiDictuation.  The  form  and  use 
of  the  statement,  question,  command,  and  exclamation  are 
dwelt  upon,  and  in  this  work  we  include  common  punctuation, 
and  use  of  capitals.  Such  lessons  as  the  following  are  based  on 
previous  reading: 

7]  7 


8  Elementary  School  Citrrictiliim  [8 

Possessioji  and  the  Apostrophe. 
Find  three  apostrophes  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  The  robins'  nest  is  in  John's  pear  tree. 

2.  Where  is  the  oriole's  nest? 

The  words  containing  the  apostrophes  show  what? 
Who  owns  the  nests?     The  pear  tree? 

Written  Exercise. 
I. 

Copy  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Beavers  have  flat  tails. 

2.  The  otter  has  thick  fur. 

3.  A  weasel  has  sharp  teeth. 

4.  Rabbits  have  teeth  like  chisels. 

Change  and  write  these  sentences  so  that  beavers,  otter 
weasel,  and  rabbits  show  the  ownership. 

II. 

In  the  "Legend  of  St.  Christopher"  find  and  copy  all  the 
words  which  show  possession.  Use  these  words  in  sentence, 
of  your  own.     Be  sure  you  use  the  apostrophe  correctly. 

Often  the  children  enjoy  copying  from  the  blackboard  an 
unpunctuated  paragraph  or  stanza  of  poetry,  punctuating  it  as 
they  think  best,  comparing  their  work  with  the  correct  form 
and  changing  theirs  where  necessary. 

Composition.  In  this  grade  we  still  have  oral  work  precede 
most  of  the  written  composition,  but  the  children  write  much 
more  than  formerly.  Early  in  the  year  they  delight  in  giving 
stories  of  vacation  adventures,  or  they  reproduce  in  their  own 
words  a  story  which  the  teacher  has  told.  An  occasional 
imaginary  conversation  in  fable  form  between  such  folk  as  a 
dog  and  a  squirrel,  a  fox  and  a  hen,  or  a  bat  and  an  owl,  is  en- 
joyed by  the  children.  A  story  based  on  a  picture,  poem,  or 
imaginary  experience  appeals  to  children  with  lively  imagin- 
ations, while  others  can  do  their  best  work  in  reporting  an 
excursion  or  a  lesson  in  geography  or  history.  All  such  work 
is  corrected  bv  the  teacher  and  children,  and  frequently  read 


gj  Language  9 

to  the  class  for  criticism  on  such  topics  as  clear  sentences  and 
good  topical  arrangement. 

The  simple  outlining  which  was  begun  in  the  third  grade 
is  carried  on  more  systematically  here.  A  topic  in  a  history 
or  geography  lesson  furnishes  an  easy  basis  for  outhning;  later 
we  may  together  work  out  a  simple  outline  for  a  composition, 
but  rarely  ever  write  from  it,  as  it  leads  with  such  young  chil- 
dren to  stilted  work. 

We  have  frequent  letter- writing.  Such  model  letters  as 
Phillips  Brooks,  Charles  Kingsley,  or  Lewis  Carroll  wrote  to 
children  are  studied  in  order  to  inspire  them  to  rise  above  the 
commonplace  things  which  they  most  often  write.  In  the  same 
way  we  study  some  clever  diary,  after  which  each  child  keeps 
one  at  home  for  a  week,  then  shares  it  with  his  class,  provided 
he  is  willing. 

It  is  most  interesting  to  note  how  the  reading  of  such  EngUsh 
as  Water  Babies  or  King  of  the  Golden  River  influences  the  style 
of  the  imitative  child.     The  following  is  an  illustration: 

A  Story  of  a  Stream. 

I  am  a  Stream.  I  was  very  small  in  the  mountains;  and  the 
brook  trout  jumped  and  splashed,  and  the  otter  glided  in  and 
out  after  the  fish,  and  went  up  into  the  hole  in  the  bank  wiht 
a  fish  that  he  had  just  caught. 

The  squirrels  came  and  quenched  their  thirst  and  ran  back  to 
their  homes  in  the  trees. 

Sometimes  I  saw  the  bunnies  coming  down  to  frisk  and  play, 
and  in  some  places  I  was  so  narrow  they  could  jump  over  me. 

Then  a  lot  of  small  streams  flowed  into  me ;  and  I  grew  to  be 
a  small  river.  There  were  forests  along  the  mountain  slopes  here 
and  there.  These  were  of  great  pines  and  other  evergreens,  and 
in  open  places  I  could  see  down  upon  the  plains  with  herds  of 
cattle  and  ranch  houses  dotted  over  them. 

Sometimes  I  flowed  through  villages  where  there  were 
bridges  across  me. 

It  is  getting  very  cold  now;  and  my  sides  are  freezing  and  the 
ice  gets  nearer  to  the  middle  of  me. 

Now  in  December  I  am  frozen  all  over,  and  people  are  skating 
and  sliding  and  they  are  having  to  clean  snow  oft'  me  and  are 


lo  Elementary  School  Cnrriciiluin  [lo 

making  roads  across  me   for  the   sleighs  to  cross  while   I   am 
gurgling  along  underneath. 

Back  in  the  mountains  the  squirrels  and  all  the  other  animals 
are  asleep  and  the  little  fish  have  to  get  into  the  deepest  holes. 

The  children  delight  in  feeling  that  their  finest  work  may 
be  published  in  School  Days,  the  monthly  magazine  which  is 
entirely  devoted  to  their  writings.  It  encourages  original  puz- 
zles and  illustrations,  and  furnishes  the  most  practical  incentive 

to  their  best  effort. 

I.   E.   R. 

PENMANSHIP 
Grades  IV  and  V 

The  article  on  penmanship  in  the  Teachers  College  Record 
for  September,  1906,  applies  so  fully  to  Grades  IV  and  V  that 
little  more  need  be  said.  We  work  along  the  same  lines  for 
interest,  effort,  good  sitting  position,  pen-holding,  form  of  letters, 
uniform  size,  neatness,  and  arrangement  of  work.  In  these 
grades  we  begin  to  work  for  speed  so  far  as  is  possible  without 
sacrificing  other  essential  qualities  of  good  penmanship.  Some- 
times the  pencil  is  used  for  drill  where  we  are  working  for  easy 
movement  alone,  but  the  bulk  of  our  written  work  must  be  done 
with  pen  and  ink. 

No  regular  period  on  the  program  is  assigned  to  penmanship 
in  grades  above  the  fifth.  By  insisting  upon  care  in  every 
detail  of  the  written  work,  and  by  giving  individual  attention 
to  poor  writers  we  obtain  the  result  at  which  we  aim — a  neat, 
legible,  and  practical  style. 


ARITHMETIC 

Grade  IV 

This  article  contains  an  outline  of  the  arithmetic  work  of 
the  fourth  grade  with  several  suggestions  as  to  the  methods  of 
presentation. 

The  emphasis  of  the  year  is  placed  upon  the  fundamental 
operations  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division. 
Although  the  principles  of  these  operations  have  been  taught 
in  the  preceding  grades,  it  should  be  remembered  that  constant 
drill  is  necessary  to  give  the  child  ability  to  handle  rapidly  and 
accurately  these  operations  in  general  problems.  At  the  same 
time  much  variety  in  method  is  planned  to  keep  the  child  from 
losing  interest. 

In  oral  drill  Card  No.  7  (Boston  School  Supply)  is  occasionally 
used,  as  it  contains  all  the  necessary  combinations.  A  five- 
minute  brisk  review,  with  emphasis  on  multiplication  and 
addition,  these  being  the  operations  most  used  in  practical  life, 
is  a  great  help  in  securing  the  important  qualities  of  rapidity  and 
accuracy  in  the  written  work. 

In  the  daily  thirty-minute  periods  one  half  of  the  time  is  given 
to  oral  and  the  other  to  written  work.  As  in  the  preceding 
year,  a  text -book  is  considered  necessary  and  Smith's  Primary 
Arithmetic  is  used.  The  ground  covered  extends  from  pages 
129  to  222  inclusive. 

The  Outline  is  as  follows: 

Review.  The  first  month  of  school  is  devoted  to  a  careful 
and  systematic  review  of  the  third  grade  work. 

Notation  and  Numeration.  Numbers  as  far  as  billions  are 
used  and  written,  but  the  drill  is  chiefly  on  numbers  below  one 
million. 

Counting.  The  counting  of  the  lower  grades  is  carried  on 
as  required  for  completing  the  multiplication  tables  to   10  X   10 

and  as  an  aid  in  addition. 

11]  II 


12  Elementary  School  Ciirriculum  [12 

Addition  and  Subtraction.  In  the  quick  oral  work  "carrying' ' 
is  involved.  The  written  work  consists  of  four  or  more  orders 
including  dollars  and  cents.  In  subtraction  the  addition  plan 
or  "Austrian  method"  is  used,  and  the  general  steps  which  were 
developed  in  the  preceding  grade  are  reviewed. 

Multiplication  and  Division.  Oral.  The  tables  are  reviewed 
and  completed,  and  numbers  of  two  and  three  orders  are  multi- 
plied and  divided  by  numbers  of  one.  Numbers  below  50  are 
separated  into  factors.  Multipliers  of  three  orders  are  used  in 
written  work,  and  in  division  special  attention  is  paid  to  proofs. 

Measurements.  Long  and  square  measures  are  developed, 
distances  between  well-known  places,  dimensions  and  areas  of 
rooms  and  garden  plots  are  found.     Diagrams  are  used. 

Problems.     The  problems  are  simple,  and  involve  the  use  of 

U.  S.  money,  the  common  purchases  of  a  family,  and  the  common 

occupations. 

Suggestions  as  to  Methods 

The  principal  feature  of  the  year  is  a  thorough  understand- 
ing of  long  division,  and  accuracy  and  rapidity  are  insisted  upon. 
A  child  enters  the  fourth  grade  with  an  understanding  of  the 
process  of  short  division,  and  as  long  division  involves  no  new 
principles  a  divisor  of  two  or  three  figures  presents  no  new 
difficulties.  Nevertheless,  the  successive  steps  for  explain- 
ing short  and  long  division  are  given  to  the  child,  but  formal 
explanations  are  not  required  of  him,  as  in  the  written  work 
the  short  form  is  used.  When  a  class  is  beginning  work  in  long 
division,  the  problem  should  never  be  difficult  enough  to  divert 
the  pupil's  mind  from  the  process  he  is  trying  to  learn;  thus  the 
divisors  21,  31,  41,  etc.,  are  used  at  first,  and  102,  201,  402  for 
three-figure  divisors,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  almost  always 
contained  in  the  dividend  as  many  times  as  their  first  figures 
are  contained  in  the  first  figure  or  figures  of  the  dividend,  and 
the  work  becomes  very  simple. 

The  complete  process  developed  by  the  teacher  for  the  fol- 
lowing problem  is: 

We  see  that  6000  -^  21  =  no  thousands  but  that  6700  -^  21  = 
300  and  400  -}-  41  remaining  to  be  divided;  441  -f-  21  =20 
and  21  still  remaining  to  be  divided;  21-^-21  =1.  Therefore 
the  quotient  is  321. 


13] 


(  UNIVERSITY    1 

\                     OF                      / 

A 

rithmetic 

321 

21)6741 

6300 

441 

=    300    X  21 

still  to  be  divided 

420 
21 

=    20   X  21 

still  to  be  divided 

21 

=    I   X  21 

Short  form  used  by  the 

pupil : 

321 

13 


In  multiplication  the  explanation  for  the  following  problem 
is  made  by  the  teacher  in  this  way: 

We  might  multiply  the  units,  tens,  hundred,  etc.,  separately, 
and  add  the  products;  but  that  takes  too  much  time,  so  we  say 
9  X  6  are  54  (writing  4) ;  9  X  4  (tens)  are  36  (tens)  and  36  and 
5  are  41  (writing  i) ;  9  X  8  (hundreds)  are  72  (hundreds)  and  72 
and  4  are  76  (writing  6)  ;  9  X  7  (thousands)  are  63  (thousands) 
and  63  and  7  are  70. 


7846 

X9 

54 

=   9 

X 

6 

360 

=   9 

X 

40 

7200 

=   9 

X 

800 

63000 

=    9 

X 

7000 

70614 

=   9 

X 

7846 

In  connection  with  measurements,  bright,  wide-awake 
children  like  to  work  with  things  rather  than  with  mere  ideas, 
and  the  following  problems  were  done  with  enthusiasm  during 
the  work  on  linear  and  square  measures.  Three  days  were 
given  in  which  to  work  out  by  themselves  the  answers. 


14  Elementary  School  Curriculiim  [14 

1.  How  long  a  wire  is  required  for  the  front  blackboard? 

2.  What  are  the  dimensions  of  the  wall-map  of  N.  A.? 

3.  What  is  the  area  of  the  classroom? 

4.  How  many  square  yards  of  burlap  are  needed  to  cover 

the  space  under  the  clock? 

5.  What  are  the  dimensions  of  the  bookcase  doors? 

6.  Find  the  area  of  your  garden  plot.     How  many  feet 

of  fence  would  it  require? 

Besides  the  use  of  Card  No.  7  the  following  devices  are  used 
in  oral  drill:  Easy  examples  involving  the  four  operations  are 
written  on  the  board  one  at  a  time  and  quickly  erased.  The 
children  put  the  answers  on  paper,  exchange,  and  correct. 

Pupils  are  occasionally  asked  to  give  at  a  glance  answers  to 
problems  like  these: 


150  -^  75 

39  -^ 

3 

99  -^ 

33 

25  X  8 

72  -^ 

12 

500  - 

250 

16  X   4 

36  ^ 

2 

42  + 

18 

Copies  of  the  following  are  given  to  the  children: 

abc  defghi 

1.  II  36  74  100  5  6  9  12  7 

2.  21  32  81  100  8  7  II  8  II 

3.  18  53  90  100  7  I  6  II  8 

4.  22  41  76  100  3  II  9  8  12 

5.  13  47  83  100  9  2  10  8  3 

6.  12  38  97  100  4  10  7  12  6 

7.  16  57  80  100  25895 

8.  28  T^T,  89  100  6  6  4  II  6 

Add  e,  f ,  g       From  b  take  a      Multiply  g  by  h     Divide  b  by  g 
"    e,  g,  h  "     c      "    b  "        h  "    i         "        d  "  g 

"    e,  h,  i  "     d      "    c  "         f   "  g        "        d  "   f 

Problems.  Particular  attention  is  given  to  problem  work. 
This  is  related,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  studies  of  the  grade, 
thus  appealing  to  the  interests  of  the  child.  Occasionally  facts 
of  the  business  world  are  used,  A  valuable  exercise  is  the  in- 
vention and  solution  of  problems  by  the  pupils.  As  a  basis  for 
this  work  it  is  well  to  give  to  the  children  price  lists  of  clothing, 
provisions,  railroad   and  steamer  rates.     The  history  and  geog- 


1 5]  Arithmetic  1 5 

raphy  lessons  afford  excellent  material  for  numerous  problems. 
Cards  on  which  are  written  problems  similar  to  this,  $1.00  — 
{6X  $.08,)  are  given  to  the  children  for  problem  making.  During 
a  free  period  following  a  lesson  on  liquid  measure,  these  original 
problems,  a  few  of  many  similar  ones,  were  written  on  paper  by 
the  children  and  solved  in  the  next  arithmetic  period. 

1.  Cook  used  8  quarts  of  vinegar  to  make  pickles.  How  many 
gallons  did  she  use?  At  $.04  a  pint,  what  was  the  cost  of  the 
vinegar  ? 

2.  Mary  watered  her  garden,  carrying  the  water  pot  six  times. 
It  held  8  quarts.  How  many  quarts  did  she  carry  in  all  ?  How 
many  pints? 

3.  Lucy  went  to  the  store  to  buy  3  pints  of  milk  for  fudge. 
It  cost  $.08  a  quart.  She  gave  the  man  $1.00.  How  much 
change  did  she  receive? 

4.  A  gallon  of  maple  syrup  cost  $1.20;  what  is  the  cost  of 
3  quarts? 

As  has  already  been  stated,  the  emphasis  of  the  year  is  placed 
upon  the  four  fundamental  operations  with  the  result  that  the 
pupils  acquire  the  ability  to  use  these  operations  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy  and  speed.  This  means  that  the  larger  part 
of  the  recitation  period  is  devoted  to  oral  and  written  drill  and 
that  every  effort  is  used  to  keep  the  pupils  thoroughly  interested 
in  their  work  by  the  use  of  a  variety  of  interesting  devices.  There 
is  no  royal  road  to  the  mastery  of  these  fundamentals  of  arith- 
metic. Success  will  depend  upon  the  ability  of  the  teacher  to 
keep  the  child  working  with  zeal  and  enthusiasm  at  his  full 

capacity. 

F.   M.   M. 


GEOGRAPHY 

Grade  IV 

By  the  time  the  child  has  reached  the  fourth  grade  he  has 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  geographic  features  of  the  home 
locality  and  its  life  conditions;  he  has  been  taught  to  realize  to 
a  certain  extent  his  relations  to  neighboring  regions  and  to  dis- 
tant localities,  and  in  the  use  of  globe  and  wall  maps  he  has 
been  given  a  general  idea  of  the  world  and  the  location  of  the 
continents,  oceans,  and  heat  belts.  Thus,  with  a  review  and 
an  enlargement  of  the  world  conditions  of  the  third  grade,  the 
child  is  definitely  prepared  to  begin  the  next  stage  of  the  geog- 
raphy course,  which  consists  of  a  study  of  North  America  and 
especially  of  the  United  States. 

At  the  very  beginning  care  should  be  taken  to  give  the  child 
a  right  conception  of  a  continent  as  a  land  mass  having  high- 
lands, lowlands,  slopes,  and  river  basins.  It  is  generally  agreed 
that  children  should  know  their  own  country  early,  but  as  a 
thorough  study  of  a  continent  cannot  be  made  by  young  chil- 
dren with  the  care  and  detail  that  it  can  later  on.  North  America 
and  the  United  States  are  again  studied  in  the  seventh  grade, 
but  from  a  different  point  of  view.  The  primary  study  places 
the  emphasis  upon  the  industrial  side  and  the  later  study  upon 
the  physical  side. 

In  the  study  of  an  industry  only  a  small  portion  of  time  is 
given  to  the  technical  details,  as  they  are  not  generally  under- 
stood by  the  children  and  consequently  of  but  little  value,  but 
the  emphasis  is  placed  upon  those  phases  which  develop  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  geographic  conditions  that  determine  an  industry. 

The  outlines  for  continent  study  and  for  the  study  of  the 
political  divisions  of  the  United  State ^  are  as  follows: 

{ In  hemisphere 
I.     Position  {  In  relation  to  other  continents,  to  oceans. 

1^  As  to  heat  belts. 

II.     Size  Compared    with    other    continents. 


I6] 


i6 


17] 


Geography 


17 


f  Appala- 

Compare 

1       chian 

as    to 

Highlands 

< 

height, 

Cordil- 

extent, 

leran 

grandeur. 

f  Atlantic  plain 

Lowlands 

.  Great  central  plain. 

III.     Surface 


)  Pacific  slope. 

[^  Coast  lines,  harbors 

a.  Part  densely  populated.     Reasons. 

b.  Effect  of  surface  upon  drainage. 

f  Arctic,  source. 
I  Atlantic,  direction 
fA.  River  systems  -{  of    flow, 

I  Gulf       length     and 
t  Pacific   importance 
IV.     Drainage  ^  -  of  principal 

rivers,  com- 
parisons 
^B.  Lakes:     Great  Lakes;  importance. 


V.     CHmate. 


VI.     Vegetation 


VII.     Animals 


VI 1 1.     People 


Heat   belts. 

Winds.     General   direction   noted. 

Rainfall.     General  distribution. 

f  Tundras. 
;'  Forests. 
"1  Grass  lands. 
1^  Deserts. 

Arctic  region. 
Southern  region. 
Central  region. 

f  Eskimo. 


I  Indian. 

'1  Mexican. 

I  People  of  U.  S.  and  Canada. 


The  continent  study  is  followed  by  a  brief  study  of  the  United 
States  as  a  whole,  preliminary  to  a  detailed  study  of  each  section 
like  the  following. 


Southern  States. 

I.  Position   in   United   States. 


1 8  Elementary  School  Curriculmn  [i8 

2.  Climate. 

3.  Surface. 

4.  Drainage. 

5.  Industries. 

Agriculture. 

(Other  typical  products  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner.) 

(a)  Cotton  r  Slope. 
Conditions  for  growing       -|  Soil. 

(^Climate. 

f  Extent. 
,,  .    .       ^,         1     ^  ^-  1  Life    on    plantation. 

(b)  A  cotton  plantation  -|  ^^^^^^  oi  v^^rvt. 

i  Uses  of  cotton. 

r  New  Orleans. 
.  .  „  ^^  ,  Galveston. 

(c)  Cotton  centres  {  Savannah. 

(^Charleston. 
Locate  and  give  reasons'for  these  locations. 

Other  industries  of  this  section  are  studied  to  an  extent  suffi- 
cient to  make  the  children  realize  that  other  occupations  are 
carried  on  here,  though  not  so  extensively  as  agriculture.  In- 
dustries are  compared  with  those  of  other  sections.  At  the  close 
of  a  section  study,  the  conditions  favorable  for  each  industry  are 
carefully  reviewed. 

Method.  In  teaching  the  geography  of  this  grade  the  oral 
discussion  of  topics  is  the  method  employed.  Use  is  made  of 
Dodge's  Elementary  Geography,  and  Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geogra- 
phy of  North  America,  but  the  topics  already  given  in  the  out- 
line are  developed  in  the  class  and  the  text-books  are  only  sug- 
gestive. Each  topic  is  developed  as  a  whole,  though  its  relations 
with  others  are  discussed. 

In  the  study  of  the  surface  of  North  America,  instead  of 
having  the  children  get  the  facts  from  the  text-book  exclusively, 
they  make  a  study  of  stereopticon  views,  photographs,  and  maps. 
From  this  study  they  are  led  by  questions  to  gather  information 
about  the  highlands,  the  lowlands,  and  other  physical  features. 
Often  in  the  study  of  the  political  divisions  of  the  United  States 
the  children,  from  observation  and  reasoning,  make  their  own 


iq]  Geography  19 

geographies,  and  this  plan  has  given  them  much  enjoyment. 
After  class  discussion  lessons  from  text-books  are  assigned  as  a 
summary  and  review. 

As  it  is  necessary  for  children  to  use  their  imagination  in 
almost  every  geography  lesson,  the  teacher  endeavors  by  sketch 
and  verbal  descriptions  to  stimulate  their  power  to  visuaUze. 
Sometimes  they  are  asked  to  close  their  eyes  and  picture  the 
scene  or  form  images  of  the  object. 

During  the  development  of  a  subject,  a  list  of  topics  is  placed 
upon  the  board  and  later  copied  by  the  pupils  for  use  in  oral 
or  written  reproduction.  A  lesson  on  agriculture,  following  a 
study  of  surface,  climate,  and  drainage  of  the  Southern  Missis- 
sippi Valley  States,  was  presented  as  follows:  After  the  children 
had  been  told  that  agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation  of  the 
South,  the  question  was  asked  "What  are  the  conditions  that 
make  this  industry  possible?"  The  requirements — a  slope 
suitable  to  hold  soil,  fertile  soil,  a  suitable  cHmate,  and  nearness 
to  a  market  or  a  good  shipping  centre — were  developed  during  the 
study  of  New  England,  but  were  again  carefully  reviewed  and 
compared  with  the  conditions  of  other  sections,  especially  as  to 
differences  in  climate.  Using  the  wall  and  book  maps,  the 
children,  with  this  previous  knowledge  of  surface  features  and 
conditions,  located  the  agricultural  sections.  The  information 
concerning  the  products  raised  was  given  by  the  pupils  from 
what  they  had  read  or  from  personal  experience,  as  many  of  them 
had  been  to  the  southern  states.  The  conditions  for  raising 
cotton,  rice,  and  sugar  cane  were  read  by  the  pupils  and  the  areas 
were  then  located.  Here  the  question  was  asked,  "Why  is  not 
all  the  cotton  manufactured  here  instead  of  shipping  a  part  of  it 
to  New  England?"  A  cotton  plantation  was  then  studied 
according  to  the  outline;  the  leading  centres.  New  Orleans  and 
Galveston,  located,  and  the  reasons  for  their  location  given. 
During  the  study  of  a  cotton  plantation  these  questions  were 
raised:  "How  does  the  population  of  this  section  compare  with 
New  England  where  farms  are  small?"  "Why  are  there  so 
many  negro  laborers  in  the  south?  " 

At  the  end  of  the  year  the  children  have  gained  a  good  work- 
ing knowledge  of  the  United  States,  and  have  learned  to  see  their 
country  as  a  whole  with  closely  related  parts.  They  have  been 
taught  to  read  maps  and  to  relate  the  information  gotten  from 


20  Elementary  School  Ciirricuhim  [20 

them.  Their  powers  of  observation,  reasoning,  and  imagination 
have  been  stimulated,  while  self-activity  and  original  thought 
have  been  aroused. 

F.  M.  M. 


HISTORY 
Grade  IV 

The  history  of  the  fourth  grade  is  closely  related  to  the 
geography,  which  consists  of  a  brief  study  of  the  larger  physical 
features  of  North  America,  and  a  more  detailed  study  of  the 
individual  countries  of  the  continent,  with  especial  emphasis  upon 
the  United  States.  In  connection  with  this  work  is  introduced 
a  simple  biographical  treatment  of  some  typical  men  of  action  who 
have  had  a  large  share  in  the  development  of  the  nation.  A^ 
study  is  made  of  Smith,  Standish,  Winthrop,  Bradford,  Williams, 
Stu^'vesant,  Penn,  Franklin,  Washington,  Boone,  Lewis  and 
Clark,  and  Lincoln. 

We  attempt  to  give  the  children  some  realization  of  the  debt 
we  owe  these  men,  of  the  dangers  and  difficulties  they  met  with 
in  their  efforts  to  develop  the  country,  of  the  tremendous  ob- 
stacles they  overcame,  and  of  the  hardships  they  suffered.  The 
principles  that  animated  them,  their  heroism,  their  patriotism, 
their  loyalty,  arouse  the  admiration  of  the  children  and  inspire 
them  with  high  ideals.  A  large  part  of  the  work  is  given  by 
the  teacher,  but  Thomas's  Elementary  History  of  the  United 
States  is  used  as  a  text-book,  and  the  pupils  are  trained  to 
read  and  recite  on  lessons  assigned.  The  history  story  is  arranged 
by  topics,  and  after  each  topic  is  presented  and  discussed,  an 
outline  is  put  upon  the  board  as  a  basis  for  the  oral  and  written 
reproduction.  Throughout  the  discussion  there  is  a  constant 
use  of  maps,  sketches,  and  pictures  so  that  situations,  dif!icultiesi 
and  scenes  may  be  made  clear. 

In  the  presentation  of  a  story  it  is  the  teacher's  aim  to  cul- 
tivate independent  thought  and  self-activity  in  her  pupils  by 
making  facts  and  situations  so  realistic  and  comprehensible  that 
when  problems  in  connection  with  the  story  are  presented  they 
may  be  intelligently  solved. 

Following  are  the  chief  phases  emphasized  in  the  treatment 
of  the  story  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  and  several  illustrations  of 
problems  that  arose  during  the  discussion.     The  children  were 


22 


Elementary  Sehool  Ciirriculitin  [22 


told  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  very  Httle 
was  known  of  the  Missouri  River  and  almost  nothing  of  the 
great  Northwest.  Now  that  this  land  had  been  recently  sold 
to  the  United  States  by  France,  President  Jefferson  sent  out 
an  expedition  to  explore  the  country,  and  Lewis  and  Clark  were 
chosen  as  leaders.  The  question  as  to  the  purpose  of  the  trip 
led  to  the  facts  that  the  government  desired  to  learn  more  about 
the  Missouri  River,  to  find  a  good  route  of  travel  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  to  learn  about  the  Indians,  to  establish  friendly  relations 
with  them,  and  to  observe  the  soil,  climate,  plant  and  animal 
life  with  a  view  to  future  settlement.  When  these  facts  were 
made  clear,  the  kind  of  men  needed  to  make  up  the  party  was 
discussed  and  the  preparations  for  the  journey  developed.  The 
children  realized  how  much  greater  the  difficulties  were  then 
than  at  the  present  time,  and  the  need  of  clothing,  provisions, 
firearms,  ammunition,  medicine,  boats,  and  presents  to  gain  the 
good  will  of  the  Indians  was  worked  out. 

The  party  halted  late  in  autumn  on  the  banks  of  the  Missouri 
River.  This  fact  led  to  a  discussion  of  their  reasons  for  so 
doing,  the  best  place  for  an  encampment,  and  what  the  party 
did  during  the  winter.  Early  in  the  spring  the  men  started 
again  on  their  journey  and  soon  came  to  the  Great  Falls  of  the 
river,  where  their  progress  by  boat  Vv^as  impeded.  How  did 
they  proceed?  The  fact  of  their  journeying  on  foot,  carrying 
the  boats  and  making  stronger  ones  when  their  own  proved 
too  slight,  brought  out  the  qualities  of  determination  and  perse- 
verance of  the  men.  Often  they  were  half  starved,  ragged, 
weary,  and  disheartened,  but  they  kept  on.  How  were  they  en- 
couraged? Here  followed  an  interesting  discussion  of  the 
leaders,  their  management  of  the  party,  and  their  abiHty  to 
overcome  obstacles.  Comparisons  with  other  explorers  showed 
points  of  resemblance  and  difference. 

In  November  the  explorers  reached  the  Pacific  coast,  and  as 
it  was  too  late  in  the  year  to  start  on  the  return  trip,  they  put 
up  quarters  for  the  winter.  How  did  they  utiHze  the  time? 
The  pupils  saw  that  now  was  the  time  to  observe  the  coast 
Indians — their  manner  of  life,  the  animals  thqy  caught,  and 
the  furs  they  exchanged;  also  to  learn  about  the  country,  its 
soil,  climate,  plant  and  animal  Hfe,  and  minerals.  They  began 
the  homeward  journey  in  the  spring  and  reached  St.  Louis  in 


23]  History  23 

two  years  and  four  months  after  they  set  out.     Of  what  value 
was  the  journey? 

At  the  beginning  of  the  story,  maps  were  consulted,  and 
sketches  were  drawn  on  the  board  to  make  the  routes  clear, 
so  that  with  a  good  understanding  of  the  situation  the  problems 
of  the  journey  could  be  easily  solved.  During  the  discussion 
the  following  topical  outline  was  placed  upon  the  board,  also 
in  the  pupils'  blank  books,  and  was  used  the  following  day  in 
the  oral  reproduction: 

I.  Purpose  of  expedition. 

II.  Leaders  and  men  who  made  up  the  party. 

III.  Preparation. 

IV.  Journey  up  the  Missouri. 
V.  The  Sioux  Indians. 

VI.     Winter  encampment. 
VII.     Journey  to  the  Great  Falls  and  obstacles  met  with. 

How  Lewis  and  Clark  encouraged  the  men. 
VIII.     Story  of  journey  to  Columbia  River. 
Description  of  the  country. 
IX.     The   Pacific. 

Coast    Indians. 

How  the  explorers  spent  the  winter. 
X.     The  return  to  St.  Louis. 
XI.     Value  of  the  journe}'. 
XII.     Comparisons  between  this  and  other  expeditions. 

The  lives  of  the  other  "Makers  of  the  Nation"  are  studied 
in  a  similar  manner,  and  as  they  were  men  associated  with 
various  sections  of  the  country  and  with  various  stages  of  its 
development,  there  is  no  reason  why  this  biographical  work  should 
not  give  fairly  chronological  ideas  as  to  the  significant  factors 
in  our  national  growth. 

Beside  the  historical  interest  that  results  from  this  study, 
we  hope  to  develop  in  the  children  greater  independence  of 
thought,  deeper  appreciation  of  moral  courage,  of  self-sacrifice 
and  of   loyalty,  and   a   higher   conception  of   the  meaning  of 

P^'™«^»-  F    M.  M. 


NATURE-STUDY 

Grade  IV 

"And  nature,  the  old  nurse,  took 

The  child  upon  her  knee  " — Longfellow. 

If  we  are  to  give  nature  lessons  to  little  children,  we  must 
follow  Mother  Nature's  hints  and  ways,  or  we  may  do  more  harm 
than  good.  If  we  can  lead  the  city  child  to  step  softly  lest  he 
crush  some  tiny,  working  thing;  to  rejoice  in  planting  trees  and 
wild  flowers,  rather  than  in  breaking  branches  and  ruthlessly 
pulling  up  plants;  to  s}inpathize  with  the  work  of  coun- 
try people,  and  to  revel  in  the  joys  of  out-of-door  life,  we  may 
well  consider  nature  lessons  as  part  of  our  school  work.  With 
this  spirit  predominating  in  the  work,  we  may  hope  for  a  fair 
degree  of  success  in  our  two  other  chief  aims,  namely,  training 
the  children  in  habits  of  scientific  observation,  and  helping 
them  to  a  knowledge  of  useful  facts. 

Our  working  plan  is  based  on  observational  study  of  natural 
things  suggested  by  our  industrial  work  in  geography,  such  as 
agriculture,  fisheries,  mining,  quarrying,  and  lumbering  of  the 
United  States.  Also  we  take  some  related  topics  which  are 
suggested  by  our  reading  of  Water  Babies,  such  as  the  dragonfly, 
nymphs,  caddices,  and  lobsters  or  crayfish. 

When  the  children  return  to  school  in  September,  they  find 
waiting  for  them  in  the  school  garden  the  com,  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
barley,  potatoes,  and  sometimes  tobacco  and  cotton  which  they 
planted  or  sowed  the  previous  spring.  These  help  to  make  the 
geography  and  colonial  history  work  very  real,  and  we  harvest 
and  carefully  study  them  in  their  fruit  stages. 

In  October  we  sow  winter  rye,  one  bed  in  rows  as  if  it  were 
drilled  in,  another  broadcast.  This  they  watch  to  see  which 
grows  and  matures  more  perfectly,  and  they  are  led  to  discover 
for  themselves  the  reasons  for  what  they  see. 

We  cannot  keep  live  lobsters  in  the  room  but  we  have  cray- 
fish living  with  us  as  long  as  we  like,  and  the  children  care  for 
and  watch  them  every  morning.  For  a  period  at  a  time,  each 
24]  24 


25] 


Nature-Study 


25 


Crayfish  drawn  in  connection  with  nature-work 


Crayfish  drawn  in  connection  with  nature-work 


26  Elementary  School  Cnrriciilnni  [26 

child  has  a  crayfish  in  a  dish  on  his  desk  where  he  may  watch  it 
for  its  pecuhar  movements  and  structure,  and  draw  it. 

Such  questions  as  these  are  asked: 

How  many  have  seen  the  crayfish  in  its  native  home  ? 

In  what  kind  of  places  does  it  like  to  live  ? 

How  does  the  crayfish  move  about? 

How  does  it  get  its  food?     What  is  its  food? 

How  does  it  defend  itself? 

What  is  unusual  about  its  eyes? 

Of  what  use  to  us  is  the  crayfish? 
As  we  work,  such  an  outline  as  the  following  is  made  by  the 
children  on  the  blackboard: 

The  Crayfish 
I.     Its  home. 
11.     Its  movements.     Reasons  for  them 

III.  Its  external  structure.     Uses  of  each  part. 

IV.  Its  uses  to  man. 

This  study  of  the  crayfish  is  followed  by  the  subject  of  lob- 
ster fishing  in  New  England.  The  habits  and  needs  of  the  salt- 
water relative  are  compared  with  those  of  the  crayfish.  Then 
the  special  methods  of  lobster  fishing  are  studied.  Together 
we  set  up  an  aquaiium  containing  hardy  plants,  fish,  tadpoles, 
and  snails.  One  year  we  were  able  to  gather  these  from  tlie 
country  brooks,  and  the  snails  laid  eggs,  and  the  plants  grew  so 
rapidly  that  in  the  spring  thei^e  was  enough  :naterial  to  stock 
several  small  aquaria  for  the  children  to  take  home.  In  April 
and  May  dragonfly  nymphs  and  caddices  live  with  us  in  much 
the  same  manner  and  are  studied  as  the  crayfish.  After  this 
no  child  will  fail  to  visit  the  New  York  Aquarium,  for  the  Horace 
Mann  School-child  is  always  glad  to  know  of  "something  nice 
to  do  on  Saturday"  or  holidays. 

The  common  lumber  trees  which  grow  in  Columbia  Campus 
and  Riverside  Park  are  studied  from  a  lumbering  standpoint, 
and  the  Natural  History  Museum  furnishes  fine  specimens  of 
wood.  This  connects  the  tree  work  of  previous  years  and  the 
forestry  studies  of  the  fifth  grade. 

With  the  study  of  mining  and  quarrying  we  have  specimens 
of  coal,  iron,  gold,  silver,  and  copper  ore;  and  such  building 


2  7]  Nature-Study  27 

materials  as  the  stones,  sand,  clay,  and  cement  which  the  chil- 
dren see  used  in  the  city.  We  study  the  characteristics  of  these 
enough  to  decide  how  they  are  obtained  and  transported,  and 
where,  how,  and  why  they  are  used.  In  some  cases  we  may 
actually  see  the  quarrying  going  on  in  and  about  the  city,  and 
frequently  some  of  the  children  have  visited  distant  mines  and 
quarries  and  are  able  to  give  us  needed  information. 

As  early  as  possible  in  the  spring  the  children  begin  their 
out-door  work  in  the  school  garden,  where  they  help  prepare 
the  beds  and  sow  the  seeds.  As  the  year  before  they  have  put 
in  grains  and  vegetables,  they  now  have  flower  seeds  from  which 
to  choose  their  favorites,  such  as  sunflowers,  cosmos,  marigolds, 
and  nasturtiums,  which  will  be  in  bloom  when  they  return  in 
the  fall,  when  they  will  need  them  for  art  work  and  room  deco- 
ration. These  garden  beds  are  watched  and  cared  for  by  the 
children  as  much  as  possible,  until  school  closes  in  the  spring. 

This  nature  work  described  above  is  done  at  regular  periods 
as  far  as  possible,  but  we  also  hold  ourselves  free  to  do  related 
work  when  the  material  offers,  even  if  the  subject  be  not  on  our 
program  at  the  time. 

Early  in  May  a  child  appeared  with  a  great  bunch  of  arbutus 
blossoms.  He  told  us  where  he  had  found  and  gathered  them, 
and  how  he  had  tried  but  could  not  make  the  plants  grow  in  his 
city  garden.  Another  child  volunteered  the  Indian  legend 
about  the  arbutus,  and  in  the  free  period  that  day  a  little  girl 
"made  up"  the  following: 

The  Arbutus 

One  day  the  arbutus, 

In  pale  pink  and  green. 
Rose  from  the  brown  earth 

To  greet  the  May  Queen. 

How  fresh  the  air  is! 

How  bare  the  trees! 
Little  frail  Mayflower 

Thinks  she  will  freeze. 

Now  comes  the  sunshine. 
Now  comes  sweet  Ma  v. 


Elementary  School  Cnrriciilnm  [28 

Smiling  on  everything, 

Warmer  each  day. 

Now  sweet  Mayblossom 

Happy  may  plav. 

I.  E.  R. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 

Grade  IV 

The  handwork  of  the  fourth  grade  deals  particularly  with 
the  household  occupations  as  they  developed  during  the  early 
part  of  the  colonial    period  of  American  life. 

The  children  come  to  look  upon  pioneer  settlers  as  people  of 
an  advanced  stage   of  civilization  face  to  face  with  the  problem 


Log  Cabin 

of  securing  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  and  of  establishing  means 
of  transportation  and  communication  under  primitive  conditions. 
Because  of  these  circumstances,  their  experiences  were  much 
the  same  as  those  of  primitive  peoples,  but  owing  to  their  supe- 
rior knowledge  and  to  the  fact  that  they  had  resources  other  than 
29]  29 


Elementary  School  Curriculum 


[30 


their  environment  offered,  they  developed  in  all  directions  much 
more  rapidly.  For  example,  they  were  not  long  satisfied  with 
the  cave  and  wigwam  or  bark  house  of  the  Indian  as  a  form  of 
shelter.  Seeing  the  vast  forests  on  every  side,  and  having 
axes  at  hand,  they  felled  trees  and  built  log  cabins  which  afforded 
them  permanent  dwellings,  and  insured  to  them  greater  pro- 
tection than  did  those  of  the  Indian. 


Blockhouse 

Most  of  the  children  have  seen  log  cabins  or  pictures  of  them 
so  that  they  are  more  or  less  familiar  with  their  appearance  and 
construction.  In  this  connection  they  build  a  small  log  cabin. 
They  gather  what  materials  they  can  for  this  in  the  vicinity,  and 
if  more  is  needed,  excursions  are  made  either  to  the  campus  or 
elsewhere  to  secure  it.    The   different  parts  of  the   cabin,  the 


3il 


Manual  Training 


31 


method  of  constructing  it,  and  the  dimensions  are  all  developed 
in  a  class  discussion.  Then  the  various  parts  are  assigned  to 
the  individual  children,  to  one  or  two  the  making  of  the  flooring, 
to  several  others  the  shingles  for  the  roof,  to  another  the  door, 
to  the  remaining  ones  the  sawing  of  the  logs  to  length,  and 
notching  them  with  the  chisel.  Two  children  are  chosen  at  each 
lesson  to  act  as  builders.  When  the  building  is  finished  several 
children  fill  in  the  "cracks"  with  clay,  thus  completing  it. 
Sometimes  several  cabins  are  built  h\  the  class  at  the  same  time, 


Lobster  Pot 

and  frequently  one  is  left  open  on  one  side  so  that  it  can  be  fur- 
nished later. 

Then  the  need  of  further  means  of  protection  from  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Indians  is  developed  and  a  blockhouse  or  fort  is 
built.  This  is  worked  out  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  log 
cabin,  and  is  built  either  by  a  group  of  children  or  by  the  entire 
class. 

In  connection  with  problems  of  securing  food  by  means  of 
fishing,  hunting,  and  trapping,  fish  weirs,  nets,  and  lobster  pots 
are  made,  and  several  simple  traps  as  the  "box"  and  "dead 
fall"  are  set  up  in  the  sand  table.  Most  of  the  other  occupa- 
tions dealt  with  are  domestic  and  center  about  the  home.  Spin- 
ning, weaving,  knitting,  netting,  quilting,  embroidering,  cooking, 
and  soap  and  candle  making  are  among  those  which  suggest 


32  Elementary  School  Curriciiluni  [32 

themselves,  but  there  is  not  sufficient  time  to  develop  all  in 
school.  Weaving  is  usually  selected  as  being  typical,  and  as 
best  carrying  forward  the  industrial  thought.  In  connection 
with  the  weaving,  the  children  study  about  and  experiment 
with  processes  of  preparing  and  spinning  such  material  as  flax, 
or  cotton,  making  constant  comparisons  with  parallel  processes 
in  spinning  with  which  they  are  already  familiar.  Their  pre- 
vious knowledge  and  experience  of  looms  and  weaving  gained 
in  the  first  and  second  grades,  where  they  made  a  simple  frame 
loom  with  string  heddles,  and  wove  rugs  and  mats  for  various 
uses,  makes  it  possible  to  develop  the  principle  of  the  contintious 


Continuous  warp  loom 
Rugs  made  by  individual  children 

warp  loom  in  this  grade.  This  is  approached  by  recalling  or 
reviewing  the  work  of  the  first  and  second  grades,  and  the  nature 
of  the  articles  woven  there.  The  limitations  of  such  looms, 
and  their  inadequacy  for  supplying  the  wants  of  man  as  he 
became  more  civilized,  are  quickly  seen.  The  question  of  the 
possibility  of  weaving  a  piece  of  cloth  longer  than  the  loom  is 
considered,  and  ways  of  accomplishing  it  are  suggested.  The 
difficulties  in  handling  the  long  length  of  thread,  the  time  con- 
sumed, and  the  patience  necessary,  are  all  discussed,  and  are 
appreciated  by  the  children.  These  facts  invariably  lead  to 
the  suggestion  by  the  children  that  for  such  work  looms  must 


7^7^]  yiannal  Training  33 

have  been  invented  having  an  arrangement  of  rollers  on  which 
the  warp  could  be  wound  when  not  in  use  and  unwound  as 
needed.  The  name  "continuous  warp"  is  then  given  them. 
To  the  question  as  to  whether  they  can  think  of  any  way  of 
adding  rollers  to  the  frame  loom  which  would  be  simple  enough 
for  them  to  make,  they  have  ready  responses,  from  which  we 
gradually  evolve  the  loom  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Problems  of  fastening  the  warp  threads  to  the  warp  beam 
and  holding  the  beams  so  as  to  keep  them  from  turning  are 
solved  in  a  similar  manner.  No  attempt  is  made  to  develop 
this  form  of  heddle  with  the  children,  it  being  too  much  of  a 
problem.  Instead  the  heddle  and  its  function  in  weaving  is 
shown  to  them,  but  the  way  it  performs  that  function  is  left  to 
them  to  discover.  In  the  weaving,  different  materials  are  used 
such  as  candle  wicking,  wool,  jute,  and  rags.  Sofa  pillows, 
covers,  rugs,  table-scarfs  and  couch-covers  are  among  the  articles 
made.  The  children  make  band  and  spot  designs  for  these  in 
connection  with  their  art  work  (See  Article  on  Art,  p.  38). 

The  large  rugs  shown  in  the  illustration  on  the  following  page 
are  class  rugs  woven  last  year.  These  were  each  made  in  small 
sections  and  sewed  together  to  form  a  large  rug.  The  rug  with 
the  border  of  trees  is  3I-  feet  long  and  2  feet  wide,  and  is  com- 
posed of  12  sections — 6  center  ones  and  6  border  ones.  It  rep- 
resents the  work  of  a  group  of  twelve  children.  The  small 
rugs  shown  with  the  loom  were  designed  and  woven  by  individ- 
ual children  in  this  grade. 

The  development  from  the  hand  loom  to  the  foot  loom  is 
simple,  and  the  children  take  the  step  readily.  They  have  con- 
stant access  to  a  small  foot  loom  of  the  colonial  t}'pe  and  each 
child  has  an  opportunity  to  do  some  weaving  on  it.  This  con- 
cludes the  children's  actual  experience  with  loom  weaving  in 
school,  as  it  brings  the  subject  to  the  time  of  the  introduction 
of  power.  When  possible  a  visit  is  made  to  a  textile  factory 
and  the  children  have  an  opportunity  to  see  modern  power 
looms  in  operation,  and  to  gain  some  appreciation  of  the  weaving 

industry  as  it  is  carried  on  at  the  present  time. 

L.  H.  W. 


34 


Class  Rugs 


34 


ART 

Grades  IV  and  V 

The  dependence  of  all  the  visual  arts  for  their  excellence  upon 
certain  simple  harmonies,  and  the  fact  that  these  harmonies  of 
space,  mass,  and  color  may  be  classified  into  simple  exercises 
which  call  the  creative  power  into  use,  make  their  study  one 
specially  adapted  to  the  development  of  the  child.  Guided  self- 
expression  is  as  much  the  aim  of  the  art  course  as  it  is  of  any  other 


/ 


1 


\ 


X.. 


K.i^ ' ' 


SJf 


course  in  the  curriculum,  for  it  is  only  as  the  child  expresses  his 
judgment,  whether  it  be  in  the  form  of  his  own  creation  or  in  the 
choice  of  the  work  of  another,  that  we  are  able  to  distinguish 
any  progress.  In  planning  the  art  work  for  all  the  grades  we 
endeavor  to  keep  close  to  the  fundamental  principle  that  all 
rational  instruction  must  be  based  upon  the  particular  stage  of 
35]  35 


36 


Elementary  School  Curriculuiu 


[36 


the  child's  development.  Hence  we  consider,  so  far  as  we  are 
able  to  judge,  the  child's  capacity  for  an  increased  apprec- 
iation of  spacing,  massing,  and  coloring,  and  the  fact  that  at 
this  age  he  becomes  more  critical  of  results  than  at  any  previous 
time  in  his  life,  and  that  his  power  to  execute  does  not  equal  his 
power  to  appreciate.  Therefore  the  teacher  in  selecting  a  subject 
considers  whether  a  satisfactory  handling  of  that  subject  lies 
within  the  power  of  the  child. 

The  work  in  the  fourth  grade,  as  planned  this  year,  opens 
with  nature  drawing  and  painting.  In  this  work  two  considera- 
tions are  uppermost.  First,  the  subjects  selected  are  good  in 
line,  mass,  and  color;  and,  second,  they  furnish  the  opportunity 
necessary  at  the  beginning  of  a  year's  work  in  art  for  handling 


Design  for  book-cover  border 


Variations  of  Cireek  motifs  for 
bowls 


the  different  tools  of  expression.  For  these  two  reasons  we 
begin  the  work  by  directing  attention  to  characteristic  lines  of 
stem,  flower,  and  leaf;  to  the  dark  and  light  massing  of  flowers  and 
leaves;  and  to  the  strong  colors  of  autumn  flowers  and  vegetables. 
The  child,  having  had  three  years'  experience  in  selecting  the 
size  and  shape  of  paper  best  suited  to  the  proper  placing  of  the 
subject,  now  notes  the  relation  of  spaces  in  the  subject  itself. 
For  example,  the  problem  of  drawing  the  marigold  is  before 
the  class.  The  first  question  to  decide  is,  "Which  is  the  most 
prominent  part  of  the  subject,  the  blossom;  the  stem,  or  the 
leaves?"  The  appreciation  of  the  principle  of  principal  and 
subordinate  spaces,  which  the  teacher  has  as  her  aim  in  presenting 


37]  Art  37 

such  a  subject,  will  determine  how  many  leaves  it  is  necessary  to 
draw  in  order  to  balance  the  blossom.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  teacher  selects,  and  leads  the  child  to  select,  as  subjects 
only  those  things  which  embody  some  art  princiole.  See  illustra- 
tion, p.  35. 


mm      ^'^- 

J 

^ 

k 

r 

■1 

t 

b 

'   r 

4 

^ 

L 

!■ 

.  il 

-1 

k 

r 

4 

Book-cover  with  border 


Since  good  spacing  is  the  foundation  upon  which  we  build 
our  massing  and  coloring,  the  first  lessons  are  chalk,  charcoal, 
or  pencil  drawings  of  the  subjects.  It  is  here  that  emphasis  is 
placed   upon   the   characteristic   lines  of   the   subject.     This    is 


38  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [38 

followed  by  massing  either  on  the  board,  or  with  pencil,  charcoal, 
or  ink  to  show  the  relative  values  of  the  tones  of  the  stems, 
blossoms,  and  leaves.  Finally  color  schemes  are  made  from  the 
subject.  If  the  colors  are  difficult  ones  to  mix  correctly,  this 
lesson  in  matching  the  colors  is  given  as  a  separate  exercise, 
preceding  the  painting  of  the  flower.  The  child  at  this  age  is  able 
to  handle  combinations  of  three  tones. 

The  manual  training  work  furnishes  splendid  subjects  for 
the  working  out  of  art  principles.  Throughout  the  year  we 
find  abundant  opportunities  for  the  application  of  our  exercises 
in  rhythm,  subordination,  proportion,  symmetry,  dark  and 
light  arrangement,  and  color.  Designs  for  general  outlines, 
borders, and  all-over  designs,  whether  for  bowls,  baskets,  blankets, 
rugs,  or  book-covers,  are  excellent  subjects  for  our  purposes, 
for  they  all  depend  for  their  excellence  upon  the  art  principles 
before  suggested.  The  child  is  led  to  see  that  until  he  has 
secured  a  satisfactory  arrangement  of  spaces  it  is  useless  to 
plan  the  dark  and  light  arrangement  or  the  colors. 

The  problem  of  lettering  is  first  thought  of  as  a  problem  in 
space  arrangement.  The  size  of  the  space  to  be  filled  with 
letters  having  been  determined,  the  next  step  is  to  decide  upon 
the  general  proportions  of  the  letters  best  suited  to  the  space. 
The  child  experiments  with  charcoal  to  find  whether  square  or 
tall  letters  best  fill  the  space.  When  a  decision  has  been  made,  the 
letters  are  drawn  with  the  brush,  using  ink  or  paint.  The 
design  for  a  book-cover  having  been  previously  worked  out  as 
to  massing,  (see  illustration,  p.  36),  the  child  next  considers  the 
color  of  the  letters  in  relation  to  the  tone  of  the  paper  and  the 
tone  of  the  border,  if  a  border  is  used.  The  fact  that  the  letters 
must  be  simple  in  line,  good  in  proportion,  and  in  massing  and 
coloring  must  be  such  that  they  appear  to  belong  to  the  space  on 
which  they  are  placed,  makes  the  problem  of  lettering  a  valuable 
one  from  the  artistic  standpoint. 

The  use  of  illustration  in  the  art  course  depends  for  its  value 
upon  a  knowledge  of  spacing,  massing,  and  coloring,  and  as 
such  must  be  distinguished  from  mere  story-telling.  At  various 
times  during  the  year  landscape  composition,  animal  pose,  and  ob- 
ject drawing  are  used  as  subjects,  and  so  used  that  they  embody 
the  principles  of  art.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  year  the 
child  unconsciously  applies  his  art  principles  to  his  illustrations. 


;9] 


Art 


39 


Bearing  in  mind  that  art  instruction  in  the  schools  has  for  its 
purpose  an  appreciation  of  hannony  and  not  primarily  the 
production  of  a  work  of  art,  we  study  not  only  good  pictures, 
but  also  fine  examples  of  architecture,  sculpture,  textiles, 
furniture,  and  pottery.  These  examples  are  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  child  in  connection  with  his  simple  exercises  in 
order  that  art  may  become  unconsciously  a  vital  part  of  his  life. 
The  recognition  of  hannony  in  color,  for  instance,  is  not  a  thing 
that  may  be  reasoned  out  or  learned  from  books.  It  is  an 
unconscious  development  brought  about  by  a  constant  associa- 
tion with  the  best  works  in  color. 

Building  upon  the  work  in  spacing,  massing,  and  coloring 
of  the  four  preceding  years,  the  children  in  the  fifth  grade  proceed 
from  the  breaking  up  into  harmonious  sizes  and  shapes  of  the 
space  enclosed  within  the  square  to  that  enclosed  within  the 
rectangle;  from  massing  in  three  tones  to  five  tones;  in  dealing 
with  color  from  dark  and  light  to  dark,  medium,  and  light, 
and  in  hue  from  combinations  of  two  colors  to  combinations  of 
three. 

One  of  the  most  successful  problems  of  the  year  is  the  design 
for  a  tile  which  is  to  be  made  from  clay,  glazed,  and  fired  under 
the   direction   of  the   manual-training  teacher.      The   tile   is   a 


Charcoal  sketcli 


Massing  sketch 


Desis/n  for  tile 


square,  and  since  a  square  is  the  simplest  space  for  children  to 
handle,  the  problem  in  spacing  the  design  is  a  suitable  one  with 
which  to  begin  the  design  work.     By  examples  and  questions  the 


40 


Elementary  School  Curriculum  [40 


children  are  guided  to  observe  the  principle  of  principal  and 
subordinate  masses.  A  number  of  charcoal  sketches  are  made. 
A  choice  of  these  furnishes  opportunity  for  discussing  why- 
certain  designs  are  fine  and  others  commonplace.  Massing 
the  chosen  design  in  as  many  arrangements  of  three  and  five 
tones  as  the  child  chooses,  not  only  dehghts  him  because  of  his 
instinctive  desire  to  find  out  what  changes  take  place  in  the 
appearance  of  the  design  by  a  change  in  the  amount  of  gray, 
black,  or  white  used,  but,  what  is  more  important,  he  sees  and 
appreciates  the  fact  that  good  spacing  will  not  ensure  good 
massing.  A  good  design  in  spacing  may  be  obscured  by  poor 
massing.  When  good  massing  is  joined  to  fine  spacing,  the  child 
is  ready  to  consider  color.  The  tones  of  color  as  well  as  the"  hue 
are  considered. 

From  this  problem  dealing  with  the  square,  we  advance  to  the 
same  problem  with  the  rectangle.  This  problem  takes  the 
form  of  a  book-cover,  or  a  portfolio,  and  is  worked  out  just  as  the 
tile  problem  was.  One  additional  element,  that  of  lettering, 
enters  here  and  is  based  upon  the  work  done  in  the  fourth  year. 


Bowl  with  eireek  Donler 

History  awakens  an  interest  in  Greek  and  Roman  art;  there- 
fore, it  is  here  that  we  make  a  beginning  of  art  history  as  well  as 
strive  to  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  art  of  these  people. 
Any  number  of  subjects  are  suggested  by  this  fertile  field.  The 
study  of  pictures,  architecture,  sculpture,  and  vase  forms  is 
introduced  in  connection  with  the  simple  exercises  of  the  class; 
for  example,  the  beauty  of  the  Parthenon  can  be  more  nearly  ap- 
preciated after  the  class  has  been  studying  rhythm,  the  Moses 
of  Michel  Angelo  after  attempts  at  pose  drawing,  and  so  on. 
Nature   drawing,   object  drawing,   and  pose   drawing  are  used 


4i]  A^t  41 

throughout  the  year  as  they  offer  opportunities  for  working  out 

harmonies  of  space,  mass,  and  color.     In  a  still-hfe  group,  the 

teacher  chooses  the  objects  with  regard  to  large  and  small  masses, 

dark   and   light   masses,    harmonious    colors,    and   elements   of 

perspective   involved.     She    first   directs   the    attention   to   the 

placing  of  the   group   upon  the   paper.     This  outline   drawing 

of  the  group  is  a  lesson  in  line  and  is  repeated  until  the  children 

intelligently  secure  a  good  line  quality.     If  necessary  to  hold 

the  interest  of  the  class,  the  objects  are  changed.     The  experience 

gained  by  criticising  the  drawings  of  the  class  at  the  close  of 

each  recitation  is  very  valuable.     The  next  step  is  a  lesson  on 

painting  the  spaces  in  black  and  as  many  tones  of  gray  as  are 

needed  to  enable  the  children  to  recognize  and  express  relative 

values  of  color.       Finally  the    attention  is  centred   upon   the 

difference  in  hue. 

When  the  children  leave  the  fifth-year  art  work  they  should 

understand  the  principles  of  repetition,  subordination,  symmetry, 

and  proportion  as  related  to  spacing.     In  massing  they  should  be 

able  to  handle  combinations  of  three,  four,  and  five  tones,  and 

in  color  to  understand  the  difference  between  hue  and  dark  and 

light. 

E.  M. 


MUSIC 
Grades   IV  and  V 

When  we  begin  to  teach  the  children  to  sing  in  their  first 
school  year  our  main  object  is  to  get  them  to  enjoy  it.  We 
give  them  songs  which  they  can  understand  and  in  which,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  melodies  express  the  sentiment  of  the  words. 
The  children  soon  learn  to  see  the  close  connection  between  the 
words  and  the  melody,  and  between  the  words  and  the  rhythm. 
This  helps  them  to  sing  with  meaning  and  expression.  From 
the  very  start  we  try  to  keep  the  children's  singing  simple  and 
natural  so  that  they  talk  their  songs,  but  use  their  singing  voices. 
They  are  often  encouraged  to  sing  their  own  thoughts  instead  of 
talking  them,  such  as  singing  their  "Good-morning"  and  "Good- 
bye," and  some  of  their  questions  and  answers.  This  practice 
of  thought-singing  develops  in  the  second  and  third  years  into 
song-making.  Instead  of  singing  a  question,  answer,  or  short 
statement,  the  children  make  up  couplets  and  try  to  sing  them 
so  that  the  rhythm  and  the  melody  will  suit  the  meaning  of 
the  words.  After  a  time,  by  frequently  noticing  the  way  the 
tunes  of  their  sentence -songs  and  rote-songs  go  up  and  down 
and  by  sketching  the  tunes  with  dashes,  they  easily  build  the 
staff  on  which  to  put  their  own  tunes  so  that  they  may  be  kept. 

Parallel  with  this  melody-picturing  and  staff-building  goes 
the  development  of  the  rhythmical  sense.  The  children  in  the 
first  and  second  grades  have  a  great  deal  of  practice  in  clapping 
to  their  rote-songs  and  in  swinging  their  hands  to  mark  the 
pulses.  After  much  practice  in  clapping  and  swinging  to  songs 
and  Mother  Goose  rhymes  they  are  able  to  make  the  circles 
and  dashes  upon  the  board.  The  next  step  is  that  of  learning 
the  values  of  notes  to  represent  the  circles  and  dashes.  In  order 
to  write  their  sentence  songs  upon  the  staff,  the  children  must 
understand  the  fixed  pitch  relationship  of  the  lines  and  spaces 
of  the  staff,  and  the  intervals  of  whole  and  half  steps  which  they 
represent.  This  interesting  investigation  is  carried  on  in  the 
third  year.  With  a  knowledge  of  the  pitch  relationship  of  the 
staff  and  of  note  values,  the  children  of  the  third  grade  are  ready 

42  [42 


43] 


Music 


43 


to  write  their  own  songs  in  regular  musical  form,  and  to  sing 
simple  exercises  and  songs  from  the  board  and  from  their  music- 
readers.  This  briefly  sketches  the  work  of  the  first  three  school 
years.  The  January  and  September  numbers  of  the  Teachers 
College  Record  for  1906  contain  a  more  detailed  account. 

For  three  years  the  children  have  been  working  from  the 
sound  of  a  phrase  to  its  representation  in  notation.  With  the 
fourth  year  the  order  is  reversed,  and  they  begin  to  work  from 
the  notation  to  the  sound.  Their  three  years'  work  has  fur- 
nished them  with  a  knowledge  of  musical  notation  sufficient  to 
enable  them  to  sing  simple  phrases  after  having  studied  the 
melody  and  its  rhythm  separately.  Now  we  wish  them  to  be 
able  to  combine  at  sight  the  melody  and  rh3^thm  of  a  song, 
phrase  by  phrase. 

As  an  aid  towards  combining  rhythmic  and  pitch  relation- 
ships we  give  such  practice  as  the  following: 

(i)     Supplying  the  rhythm  to  a  given  pitch      outline. 

(2)  "  "    pitch        "  "       rhythmic     " 

(3)  Changing  the    pitch      outline  of  a  motive. 

(4)  "  "     rhythmic 


(1.)  ?JZi  (Ku£^    CL.yr^-S,tyrL,    ^  ?^.  7?,  »1, /?,   tQ^fi. 


^^ 


S^ 


i 


3 


The  scale  ascending  and  descending  may  be  taken  as  a  pitch 
outline  and  may  be  varied  so  as  to  show  the  contrast  between 
the  whole  pulse,  the  dotted  whole  pulse,  and  the  dotted  half 
pulse. 

There  are  many  devices  for  helping  to  gain  speed  in  this 
phrase-reading.  One  is  to  have  a  staff  upon  the  blackboard 
with  a  key  and  a  time  signature  but  no  notes.  The  children 
watch  very  closely  while  a  short  phrase  is  being  pointed  in  good 
rhythm  upon  the  lines  and  spaces,  and  then  sing  the  phrase 
from  memory.  The  exercise  is  varied  by  writing  a  short  phrase 
in  notation  upon  the  blackboard.  The  class  is  allowed  a  few 
seconds  to  look  it  through  and  then  it  is  erased  and  sung  from 
memory.  Phrases  are  also  written  upon  the  board  or  upon  a 
chart  and  screened  from  view.  These  are  uncovered  one  at  a 
time,  covered  again,  and  sung  from  memory.     Different  keys 


44 


Eleincntary  School  Curriculum 


[44 


are  used  in  the  sight-reading  work,  adding  to  those  used  in  the 
previous  grades  the  keys  of  D,  D6,  E,  E6,  A,  Ab.  Simple 
phrases  such  as  those  in  the  illustrations  are  given  the  children 
to  re-write  in  one  or  two  different  keys.  They  will  find 
after  singing  an  exercise  in  different  keys  that  although  the 
tune  is  the  same,  when  sang  in  a  higher  or  lower  key,  it  has 
an  entirely  different  effect. 

It  is  excellent  practice  for  the  children  to  write  the  notation 
for  some  of  the  easy  phrases  in  their  rote-songs.  We  tell  them 
what  key  to  use,  and,  if  necessary,  help  them  to  decide  what  note 


iiy^jjj  II  J.  J  J  J' II  J.  J  J. 


»-?f? 


(^.)  i  mnA^nAnjnJ\j.u±Q- 


A 


\)W'\im^. 


t. 


^m 


^ 


(j)  '^^jCcn-htr^j  .l/iS    o^Thee.  fi\-cl    oall;^,^    cU-n^c^. 


UJ.llliJll    j>,^^ 


TniC    oarli>l£ 


fl.1 


a-n 


?^. 


3 


^ 


3Z3 


the  phrase  begins  on.  If  it  is  too  difffcult  for  them  to  write  the 
tune  and  its  rhythm  at  the  same  time,  they  first  write  just 
the  heads  of  the  notes  on  the  staff  to  picture  the  pitch  outline 
and  then  put  in  their  values.  They  are  also  able  with  a  little 
help  to  write  the  notation  for  their  original  songs. 

The  process  of  song-making  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  third 
grade,  only  the  rhymes  may  be  longer  if  desired,  and  an  attempt 
is  made  to  make  the  melody  and  the  rhythm  more  closely  ex- 
press the  thought  or  action  of  the  words.  The  songs  are  made 
individually  and  by  the  class  as  a  whole.     When  made  by  the 


45] 


Music 


45 


class,  of  couise  each  member  has  a  chance  to  contribute  Hnes 
to  the  verse  or  a  phrase  to  the  time. 

"yhie    T'iVsi'     3-no*\^  ~  sforyn  . 


at* 


^ 


M 


^ 


s 


£ 


^ 


^ 


S>iovs?iow-  ^11  a-vMu,7icl^    rails  «»  niU^    a^d  ire&s    i-nd    ^rou^i^ci. 


lA/jJ^r  rlc;-^JJ|^f^  rl^>'nj 

£ovs  and  Qirls  i^ou-M  liketo-pjaw    I»-fhe57iow  +/)e   Mv^e-loxcf    olfl> 


The  song  illustrated  above  was  made  by  one  division  of  the 
grade  early  in  the  year.  The  verse  was  made  by  one  member 
of  the  class;  the  class  as  a  whole  decided  what  rhythm  to  use 
by  swinging  circles  to  the  verse,  and  the  tune  was  made  phrase 
by  phrase  by  different  ones.  The  tune  was  started  high  because 
of  the  thought  of  the  snow  coming  from  the  sky.  After  the  song 
was  completed,  the  children  noticed  that  they  had  sung  "hills" 
high;  "trees"  a  little  lower;  and  "ground"  lower  still.  They 
tried  to  express  the  thought  of  girls  and  boys  playing  in  the 
snow  by  using  the  quicker  notes  running  up  and  down. 

We  still  teach  rote-songs,  in  the  singing  of  which  we  re- 
quire greater  concentration  upon  the  thought  expressed.  While 
the  song  is  being  learned,  the  meaning  of  the  different  phrases 
is  discussed,  and  the  children  help  to  decide  how  the  song  should 
be  sung  so  as  to  bring  out  the  peculiar  meaning  of  each  phrase. 
By  talking  about  the  song  in  this  way  the  children  gain  very 
similar  ideas  of  its  meaning,  so  that  when  they  sing  it  together 
the  expression  is  much  more  unified.  Each  one  in  the  chorus 
must  try  to  picture  the  song  mentally  while  singing  it,  and  then 
try  to  sing  it  so  as  to  make  pictures  come  into  the  minds  of 
those  who  listen.  Take  as  an  example  the  song  with  the  words 
by  Frank  Dempster  Sherman: 

"At  evening  when  I  go  to  bed, 
I  see  the  stars  shine  overhead, 
They  are  the  little  daisies  white 
That  dot  the  meadow  of  the  night." 

The  picture  that  these  words  suggested  to  the  children,   and 


46  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [46 

which  they  tried  to  suggest  by  their  singing  to  their  listeners, 
was  dark  and  quiet  with  bright  stars  overhead.  They  imagined 
these  stars  were  white  daisies  which  a  very  graceful  lady  was 
picking.  Then  the  picture  changed  and  there  were  no  more 
daisies  in  the  field  overhead,  but  down  on  the  ground  there  was 
a  field  covered  with  them,  which  the  fair  lady  had  dropped  from 
the  sky.  The  class  sang  the  whole  song  softly  and  smoothly, 
but  made  a  slight  change  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  verse 
where  it  tells  about  arising  in  the  morning.  They  tried  to  em- 
phasize the  important  words  that  would  help  make  the  picture, 
such  as  evening,  bed,  and  stars.  The  class  was  much  amused 
when  it  was  mentioned  that  the  audience  must  be  made  to 
"see  stars. " 

Each  one  in  the  chorus  must  be  responsible  for  his  share 
not  only  in  concentrating  upon  the  thought  of  the  song,  but  in 
watching  the  chorus  leader.  Although  in  previous  grades  the 
children  have  been  taught  to  work  together,  they  are  now  even 
more  impressed  with  the  importance  of  every  one's  watching. 
The  leader  has  a  number  of  signals  which  the  chorus  understands, 
and  by  means  of  these  he  is  able  to  keep  the  chorus  together 
and  to  make  each  member  do  exactly  what  he  wants  at  exactly 
the  same  instant,  if  they  are  all  watching  him.  Careful  watching 
and  careful  leading  bring  a  unity  into  the  chorus  singing  which 
gives  satisfaction  not  only  to  the  listeners,  but  to  the  chorus 
and  its  leader. 

A  clear,  free  tone  is  an  essential  of  good  chorus  singing.  One 
voice  a  little  below  pitch,  or  of  a  rough,  strident  quality,  will 
spoil  the  good  tone  of  a  chorus.  So  special  ear  and  voice  train- 
ing is  given  those  whose  voices  are  either  unpleasant  or  not  true 
to  pitch.  The  tone-quality  of  a  chorus  as  a  whole  can  be  im- 
proved by  regularly  imitating  the  leader  in  singing  sustained 
tones  on  various  pitches  with  different  vowel  sounds.  Good 
standing  or  sitting  positions  are  insisted  upon  during  such  prac- 
tice and  in  all  chorus  drill.  When  standing  to  sing  the  children 
stand  firmly  on  both  feet  with  the  body  and  head  well  erect, 
even  though  they  are  obliged  to  sing  from  books.  When  sitting 
they  sit  as  far  back  as  possible  in  the  chairs  with  the  trunk  of 
the  body  erect,  not  leaning  against  the  chair  back,  but  inclined 
slightly  forward  from  the  hips.  This  position  makes  deeper 
breathing  possible,  and  helps  in  strengthening  the  breath  control. 


47]  Music  47 

One  of  the  three  twenty-minute  lessons  in  each  week  is  given 
to  chorus  singing  with  the  two  divisions  of  the  grade  combined. 
In  order  to  leave  the  chorus  lesson  free  for  regular  drill,  about 
a  third  of  the  time  must  be  taken  from  each  of  the  two  remaining 
periods  for  the  actual  learning  of  the  rote-songs.  Even  this 
time  can  be  made  partly  a  practice  time  in  sight-reading  by 
giving  the  easiest  phrases  in  the  rote  songs  as  exercises  for  the 
class  to  read  by  themselves.  And  yet  the  time  that  is  left  for 
the  practice  of  technical  difficulties  to  aid  in  sight-reading  is 
very  short.  This  means  that  regular  and  intense  work  must 
be  done,  and  that  as  much  as  possible  must  be  accomplished 
during  the  fourth  year,  because  from  now  on  the  time  allotted 
to  music-study  grows  less  and  less. 

The  more  practice  in  reading  the  children  can  have  in  their 
fourth  year  the  better  fitted  they  will  be  for  their  fifth  year's  work. 
They  must  be  ready  to  begin  singing  two-part  music.  As  a 
preparation  for  this,  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  we 
teach  canons  or  rounds.  We  teach  a  canon  first  as  a  one-part 
song  to  the  whole  chorus,  and  then  divide  the  chorus  into  two 
divisions  and  later  into  three.  This  practice  enables  the  chil- 
dren to  carry  a  melody  independently  against  another  part. 

In  the  chorus  singing  of  the  fifth  year  we  pay  special  atten- 
tion to  tone-production  and  resonance.  Up  to  this  time  the 
children  have  succeeded  in  singing  a  clear,  smooth  tone  largely 
through  imitating  their  leader  and  aided  by  their  good  sitting 
and  standing  positions-,  and  by  deep  breathing.  They  have 
unconsciously  formed  some  good  vocal  habits.  Now  they  must 
be  made  conscious  of  how  tone  is  produced  and  why  certain 
things  must  be  done  in  order  to  produce  it  well.  As  they  grow 
older  the  majority  of  them  will  become  somewhat  self-conscious 
and  will  lack  freedom  in  their  movements.  This  is  likely  to 
have  a  bad  effect  upon  their  singing.  This  difficulty  may  be 
avoided  by  helping  the  children  to  understand  a  few  principles 
of  good  tone-production  and  to  work  for  freedom  in  all  parts 
of  the  musical  apparatus.  As  the  musical  apparatus  includes 
practically  the  whole  body,  we  first  proceed  to  limber  that  up 
before  singing  and  to  keep  it  in  good  poise.  This  is  done  by 
giving  the  following  exercises: 

(i)   The   children  stand  in  the   aisles  that  each  may   have 
plenty  of  room.     All  stand  easily  erect,  then  bend  the  body 


48  Elementary  School  Curriculiiui  [48 

freely  from  the  hips,  relaxing  the  arms  and  hands.  (2)  Then 
they  gradually  raise  the  body  to  an  erect  position,  still  letting 
the  arms  hang  limply.  (3)  The  shoulders  are  made  freer  by 
working  them  forward,  backward,  upward,  and  downward,  and 
by  lifting  and  dropping  them.  (4)  The  rotary  movement  is 
applied  to  the  head  by  letting  it  drop  forward  upon  the  chest 
and  then  rolling  it  around  to  the  back  and  front  again.  When 
the  head  goes  back  the  mouth  must  be  allowed  to  open  so  as  not 
to  strain  the  chords  of  the  throat  and  to  keep  the  jaw  muscles 
free. 

The  liberating  exercises   are  followed  by  breathing  exercises. 

1.  Inhale   deeply.     Retain   breath   for   five   or  six   seconds 
Exhale  quickly  through  the  mouth. 

2.  Inhale  quickly.  Retain.  Exhale  very  slowly  by  blowing 
the  breath  out. 

The  children  are  encouraged  to  find  out  how  a  few  of  the 
most  common  musical  instruments  are  made,  the  shape  of  their 
resonance  boxes  and  how  the  air  is  set  to  vibrating  within  them 
to  make  a  tone.  It  interests  them  to  find  that  their  own  bodies 
are  wonderful  musical  instruments  and  that  they  must  try  to 
make  their  tones  sing  or  vibrate  inside  themselves  as  the  tone 
does  inside  the  cello,  for  instance. 

We  give  vocal  exercises  which  help  to  make  the  quality  of 
the  voices  more  even,  such  as  singing  the  vowels  a,  a,  e,  o  on  a 
sustained  tone,  singing  a  single  vowel  sound,  or  the  singing  names 
to  a  simple  pitch  outline.  In  this  practice  attention  is  called 
to  the  fact  that  the  vowel  is  the  musical  part  of  a  word  and 
should  be  sung  very  smoothly;  that  it  is  necessary  also  to  make 
the  consonants  crisp  and  distinct  in  order  to  make  the  words 
clearly    understood. 

The  technical  practice  continues  the  fourth  year's  study 
for  speed  and  accuracy  in  reading  by  phrases.  As  an  aid  in  their 
reading  and  in  their  part-singing,  we  acquaint  the  chorus  with 
three  important  chords,  the  chords  of  doh,  fah,  and  soh.  By 
the  following  process  the  children  build  these  chords;  The 
chorus  is  divided  into  three  choirs.  They  all  sing  doh,  and  the 
first  choir  sustains  it  while  the  second  and  third  sing  slowly  up 
the  scale  until  they  find  a  tone  which  sounds  well  with  doh.  Doh 
and  re  sung  together  sound  very  unpleasant,  but  doh  and  me 
harmonize  well.     The  first  choir  then  sustain  doh  and  the  second 


49 


Music  [49 


me,  while  the  third  sing  up  the  scale  until  they  find  a  tone  har- 
monizing with  doh  and  me,  which  is  soh. 


t 


^y  .o-^'gll^fe  ^°  "I'^J  g  ^ 


■^e- 


A  B  C 

The  whole  notes  represent  the  tones  which  are  found  to  sound 
well  together,  the  filled-in  notes  those  passed  over.  (See  exer- 
cise A.)  A  comparison  is  made  between  the  sound  of  the 
chord  in  this  position  and  in  other  positions.  When  doh  is  the 
foundation  tone  the  chord  sounds  firm  and  steady.  Doh  sung 
in  the  second  position,  with  nie  at  the  base,  adds  sweetness  to 
the  effect  of  the  chord.  With  me  at  the  top,  and  soh  at  the 
base,  the  chord  sounds  much  brighter.  (See  exercise  B.)  The 
fah  and  soh  chords  are  built  in  the  same  way,  working  from 
the  doh  chord.  After  the  chorus  become  sufficiently  well  ac- 
quainted with  these  chords  to  sing  them  in  their  different  posi- 
tions, they  sing  them  in  progression  from  dictation  as  a 
tuning-up  exercise.  (See  exercise  C.)  The  doh  chord  is  called 
for  with  doh  at  the  base.  Then  the  three  choirs  are  asked  to 
sing  the  nearest  tone  in  the  fah  chord  and  follow  that  with  the 
doh  chord  and  so  on. 

When  the  idea  of  major  chords  is  established  the  transition 
to  the  minor  mode  is  made.  After  singing  the  tonic  chord  doh* 
me,  soh,  doh,  the  pitch  of  lah,  a  minor  third  below,  is  given  and 
the  chord  lah,  doh,  m^,  lah  is  sung.  The  class  compares  the 
characteristic  difference  between  one  group  and  the  other,  and, 
starting  with  the  upper  lah,  sing  down  the  tones  of  the  natural 
minor  scale.  The  tones  used  are  exactly  the  same  as  in  the 
major  scale.  The  difference  in  feeling  is  caused  by  the  emphasis 
placed  upon  different  starting  and  closing  tones  which  changes 
the  order  of  the  intervals.  Thus  the  natural  minor  scale  is  but 
a  different  aspect  of  the  same  group  of  tones  out  of  which  the 
major  is  made  and  is  represented  by  the  same  key  signature. 

The  third  step  is  to  show  that  this  minor  feeling  may  be  still 
further  developed  by  changing  the  upward  progression  of  the 
natural  minor  between  the  sound  names  of  m£  and  lah  by 
sharping  fah  and  soh.  This  gives  the  tone  distances  from  me  to 
lah,  the  same  as  the  class  is  accustomed  to  singing  from  doh  to 


JO  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [50 

fah.  They  are  first  sung  this  way  and  then  their  true  scale 
names  are  given  as  me,  fe,  se,  lah,  the  downward  scale  being  sung 
as  the  natural  minor.     This  gives  the  melodic  form  of  the  minor. 

The  fourth  step  is  to  show  that  instead  of  changing  fah  to 
je,  it  can  be  sung  as  in  the  natural  minor  and  the  skip  made  to 
se  directly,  singing  in  this  case  the  same  both  ascending  and 
descending.  This  skip  is  easily  attained  by  singing  me,  fah,  me, 
and  lah,  se,  lah,  until  fah  and  se  are  thoroughly  in  mind;  then 
the  group  me,  fah.  se,  lah  is  easily  sung.  Thus  the  harmonic 
form  of  the  minor  is  taught. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  in  minor  is  to  make  clear  to  the 
children  that  many  of  the  so-called  accidentals  that  appear  in 
the  pieces  they  sing  are  but  transitions  to  the  minor  and  can  be 
easily  sung,  if  the  nature  of  the  transition  is  thoroughly  under- 
stood. 

While  the  above  description  covers  the  technical  work  of 
these  grades,  that  work  in  itself  is  not  the  aim  of  the  instruc- 
tion in  music,  but  it  is  a  means  for  getting  musical  results  in 
a  more  intelligent  way  from  the  pupils.  The  pupils  feel  the 
necessity  for  practicing  the  technical  points,  because  of  the 
close  connection  kept  between  the  technique  and  the  end  it 
serves  in  expressive  singing. 

H.  L. 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION 
Grades  IV  and  V 

In  tliis  short  sketch  we  will  attempt  to  give  only  two  illus- 
trations of  the  work  in  the  gymnasium  with  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades,  but  with  these  illustrations  we  will  suggest  the  change 
in  viewpoint  of  the  work  as  a  whole. 

A  relay-race  is  one  of  the  fourth  grade  games.  Four  equal 
divisions  of  the  class  are  made,  and  the  lines  form  at  one  end 
of  the  room.  In  front  of  each  line  and  about  fifteen  feet  distant 
a  goal  is  set  up.  The  goal — either  a  stool  or  an  Indian  club — 
is  placed  on  the  floor  so  that  in  the  race  the  runner  may  go 
around  it.  At  a  signal  the  first  four  in  the  Unes  run  (or  walk) 
across  the  floor,  around  the  goal,  and  back  to  the  starting  line. 
The  next  four  run  in  the  same  manner.  After  all  the  children 
have  tried  the  race,  the  winners  of  each  four  may  race  together. 

While  any  four  children  are  running  the  others  watch  to 
see  what  points  they  can  get  which  will  help  them  in  the  race. 
Those  who  are  to  run  try  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  the  racers 
who  have  preceded  them.  While  winning  the  race  is  the  ob- 
jective point  to  the  child,  the  real  value  of  the  game  to  him  is 
in  his  finding  why  he  succeeds  or  fails.  The  competition  is  only 
the  measure  by  which  he  finds  the  problem.  It  is  the  means 
through  which  he  perceives  that  different  results  are  obtained 
by  different  actions.  The  ability  to  adjust  himself,  by  making 
the  coordinations  which  he  sees  are  necessary  to  meet  the  re- 
quired conditions,  is  the  vital  point  of  the  game. 

When  the  children  become  conscious  of  the  problem,  and 
show  a  certain  degree  of  skill  in  meeting  it,  we  begin  to  study 
how  we  can  join  the  forces  and,  by  cooperating,  work,  not 
individual  against  individual,  but  side  against  side.  There  are 
many  new  questions  now,  for  we  attempt  to  find  how  two  or 
more  people  can,  by  working  together,  attain  a  given  end  more 
easily  than  when  they  work  alone.  The  children  very  quickly 
see  that  if  one  runner  forgets  his  place  in  the  line  and  gets  in 
the  path  of  the  next  one,  in  order  to  gain  an  advantage  for 
himself,  he  may  cause  his  side  to  lose  the  race.  While  co5per- 
51]  51 


52  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [52 

ation  makes  the  effort  less  for  the  individual,  it  makes  the  prob- 
lem of  coordination  much  harder.  The  child  finds  that  he  must 
act  in  relation  to  the  others  on  his  side,  as  well  as  in  relation  to 
the  goal.  The  children  work  out  for  themselves  the  rules  of  the 
game.  These  represent  the  conditions  which  make  the  problem 
the  same  for  all,  and  give  a  basis  for  judging  the  results.  In 
this  way  it  is  possible  for  one  to  learn  from  the  efforts  of  others. 

In  order  that  the  child  may  carry  over  the  knowledge  and 
interest  from  the  problem  on  which  he  has  worked,  one  game 
is  developed  from  another.  The  new  problem  always  requires 
more  ability  than  the  previous  one  called  forth.  In  working 
in  this  manner,  the  children  soon  realize  that  one  individual 
gains  an  advantage  over  the  others  because  he  is  able  to  make 
the  motor  adjustments  more  easily  and  more  quickly.  They 
see,  for  instance,  that  the  starting  position  is  important;  that 
some  children,  when  running,  use  their  arms  to  better  advan- 
tage than  others;  and  that  the  power  to  keep  up  speed,  when 
going  around  the  goal,  requires  great  accuracy  of  eye  and  control 
of  the  acting  muscles. 

It  is  such  points  as  these  that  give  the  basis  for  the  technical 
side  of  the  work.  The  gymnastic  program  is  developed  from 
the  games  and  the  other  motor  work  of  the  school.  We  arrange 
our  gymnastics,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  accord  with  the 
conventional  program:  but  when  the  psychological  factors  re- 
quire it,  we  vary  from  the  accustomed  order  and  method  of 
presentation.  What  we  desire  is  not  merely  the  anatomical 
progression  in  movement,  but  the  development  of  motor  effi- 
ciency in  order  that  the  child  may  carry  out  the  ideas  on  which 
he  is  at  work.  What  the  child  must  do  is  to  connect  his  motor 
technique  with  the  ideas  he  is  endeavoring  to  express  in  action 
if  he  is  to  have  genuine  interest  in  his  technical  training.  In 
so  relating  the  factors  we  get  a  degree  of  interest  in  the  gym- 
nastics that  is  vital  and  deep-seated.  The  gymnastics  become 
worth  while  as  the  means  to  the  end  for  which  the  child  is  striving. 
We  have  suggested  the  motor  work  in  the  school  with  which  we 
connect  the  technique.  The  manual  training  offers  great  oppor- 
tunity. We  consider  the  making  of  a  loom,  for  instance,  a 
more  highly  developed  problem  of  skill  than  the  relay  race,  and 
there  is  with  it  a  finer  degree  of  coordination  required  in  the 
technique. 


53] 


Physical  Education 


53 


The  attainment  of  skill  in  the  games  and  in  the  various  occu- 
pations represents  one  part  of  our  work.  Another  phase  is  the 
development  of  the  dance-drama.  The  dance  underlies  the  arts 
of  music  and  poetry,  differing  from  them  in  degree,  rather  than 
in  character  of  expression.  It  has  the  same  relation  to  the 
technical  training  as  the  games  of  skill  and  the  occupations, 
and  is,  in  like  manner,  made  the  basis  of  the  motor  technique. 
We  study  the  histotical  dances  which  are  related  to  the  life  in  the 
school,  and  the  children  construct  their  own  dances  when  any 
subject  of  their  study  is  so  vital  to  them  that  they  wish  to  tell 
a  story  in  pantomimic  action. 


j'i:m^  ^'-^'  'r  to'  i/^cr^^ 


^m 


'  ^^■^'  Y I  mr  ^^  ^^^^ 


r.^ 


-} 


f-njiilJri 


m 


=^> 


^     •■      9     m 


^^JJ/JIJ   JJ^ 


^ 


5 


-^ 


t:^ 


DC. 


The  story  of  Proserpina  has  been  studied  by  the  fifth  grade. 
The  children  understood  and  interpreted  it  as  a  drama  of  sum- 
mer and  winter.  They  realized  that  the  joy  of  the  summer  with 
its  flowers  and  fruit,  the  sorrow  caused  by  the  stealing  of  Pro- 
serpina by  Pluto,  and  the  joyful  rettirn  of  Proserpina  to  the 
earth,  were  not  things  that  happened  onl}'-  in  the  far-off  past, 
but  stand  for  the  very  pith  of  our  own  joy  and  sorrow  in  the 
change  of  season.  They,  too,  love  the  flowers  of  summer.  They 
are  sad  when  winter  drives  them  away,  and  they  welcome  the 
first  blossoms  of  spring  with  the  greatest  glee.  The  children 
have  told  the  story  of  their  own  experience  in  a  dance-drama,  and, 
in  the  telling,  have  found  anew  the  significance  of  the  story  told 
so  long  ago.     They  chose  the  flower  for  the  symbol  in  the  panto- 


54  Elementary  School  Curricultmt  [54 

mime  because  it  seemed  to  them  more  significant  than  any  other, 
and  danced  the  story  in  this  form. 

1.  Summer's    presence,    gladly   and   gayly    gathering    the 

flowers. 

2.  Summer's  departure,  sadly  and  mournfully  searching  for 

the   flowers. 

3.  Spring's  return,  finding  the  first  flower  with  the  joy  and 

hope  of  its  promise. 
This  music  (see  cut,  p.  53)  was  worked  out  with  the  class 
by  the  accompanist. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  grade  the  boys  and  girls  carry 
on  their  gymnasium  work  in  separate  classes,  the  boys  under  a 
man,  and  the  girls  under  a  woman.  The  work  of  the  fifth  grade 
described  above  applies  only  to  the  girls. 

C.  C. 
E.  R.  F. 

TIME  SCHEDULE 

Grade  IV 

Number  of  minutes  per  week  devoted  to  the  various 
activities : 

Reading  and  Literature 150 

Language        ) 

Composition  >• ^^° 

Spelling  j 

Penmanship 75 

Arithmetic   150 

Geography        \ 

Nature  Study  V • ^5° 

History  j 

Manual  Training 85 

Art 70 

Music 60 

Physical  Education 80 

Recess 75 

Opening  Exercises 75 


OF   THE  \ 


LITERATURE  AND  READING 
Grade  V 

When  children  reach  the  fifth  grade  of  school  the  mechanical 
difficulties  in  reading  give  them  but  little  trouble.  They 
have  read  with  pleasure  such  books  as  Kingsley's  Water  Babies, 
and  Ruskin's  King  of  the  Golden  River.  Because  good  literature 
has  been  given  them  both  in  school  and  at  home  a  taste  for  good 
reading  has  already  been  formed  to  some  extent.  They  have 
some  knowledge  of  poetry  through  selections  read  and  memorized 
in  preceding  years.  Added  to  this  equipment  is  a  lively  interest 
in  stories  of  adventure,  in  the  wonderful  achievements  of  the  old 
gods  and  heroes,  and  a  keen  enjoyment  and  appreciation  of  the 
courage,  bravery,  and  strength  which  their  favorite  heroes 
display. 

Hawthorne's  Tanglewood  Tales  and  the  Wonder  Book  are 
given  the  first  place  of  all  the  prose  selections  chosen  for  this 
year's  study.  The  principal  reason  for  this  choice  is  that  these 
stories  represent  the  best  in  literature  and  are  within  the  appre- 
ciation and  comprehension  of  the  children.  Then,  too,  the 
adventures  of  Jason  in  his  search  for  the  Golden  Fleece,  of 
Theseus  in  his  wonderful  victory  over  the  Minotaur  are  intensely 
interesting  to  our  little  hero  worshippers.  In  this  school  year 
the  children  study  Greek  history,  which  is  another  reason  for 
selecting  these  tales,  although  in  choosing  our  literature  we  do 
not  consider  correlation  of  the  first  importance.  Another 
advantage  of  these  stories  is  that  many  of  them  furnish  excellent 
material  for  dramatizing. 

The  children  are  eager  also  for  stories  of  real  life  and  Heidi, 
the  little  Swiss  girl  whose  experiences  in  town  and  country  are 
so  well  told  in  Johanna  Spyri's  Heidi,  is  thoroughly  enjoyed. 
Heidi  is  followed  with  much  pleasure  in  her  wanderings  over  the 
Aim  with  Peter  and  the  goats,  and  altogether  this  story  makes 
life  in  Switzerland  much  more  real.  For  dramatizing,  too, 
many  parts  are  well  adapted. 

Portions  of  Ulysses  among  the  Phceacians  are  somtimes  read, 
55]  55 


56  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [56 

using  either  the  Bryant  or  Palmer  translation.  This  has  seemed 
too  difficult  for  some  classes,  but  other  classes  have  been  able 
to  read  selections  with  pleasure  and  profit.  Lamb's  Story  of 
Ulysses  is  read  in  the  third  grade  and  often  the  children  delight 
to  recall  and  re-read  the  experiences  of  the  "crafty  Ulysses"  in 
his  endeavors  to  reach  his  home. 

A  number  of  poems  are  also  read  during  the  year.  Each  child 
owns  a  copy  of  Poems  Every  Child  Should  Know,  compiled  by 
Mary  E.  Burt,  and  several  selections  are  chosen  from  this  for 
class  study.  Some  of  the  favorites  are  "Abou  Ben  Adhem," 
"Lucy  Gray,"  "How  They  Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent 
to  Aix,"  and  "Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade."  The  stirring 
rhythm,  the  courage,  and  patriotism  brought  out  in  the  last  two 
named  are  much  enjoyed.  In  addition  to  the  poems  used  for 
class  study  each  pupil  is  asked  to  read  for  himself.  Frequent 
reports  are  made  on  this  reading  and  favorite  passages  read 
or  recited  before  the  class. 

Beside  the  reading  which  the  children  do  for  themselves 
the  teacher  not  infrequently  reads  to  the  class  a  single  paragraph, 
a  poem,  or  perhaps  a  long  story.  This  reading  may  be  something 
suggested  by  the  school  work,  or  it  may  be  the  teacher's  way  of 
interesting  the  class  in  some  particular  poem  or  story.  Often 
the  reading  is  done  for  the  pure  enjoyment  teacher  and  pupil 
will  have  from  reading  a  good  thing  together.  Howard  Pyle's 
Wonder  Clock  has  been  a  favorite  with  several  classes. 

Necessarily  the  method  of  treatment  must  vary  with  the 
different  selections.  First  of  all  the  teacher  attempts  to  catch 
the  spirit  of  the  author.  She  wants  to  be  able  to  enjoy  the  litera- 
ture with  the  children. 

In  beginning  a  story  or  a  poem  there  is  sufficient  introduction 
to  give  the  setting  and  arouse  curiosity  and  interest.  This  is 
sometimes  done  through  discussion,  though  more  often  the 
atmosphere  is  given  by  the  teacher  in  a  few  words.  If  there  is 
too  much  introduction,  if  things  are  told  which  could  better  be 
found  out  in  the  reading,  the  story  is  sure  to  suffer.  Tanglewood 
Tales  and  the  Wonder  Book  are  approached  through  the  Greek 
history.  Places  mentioned  are  located  on  the  map.  Names 
of  characters  are  written  on  the  blackboard,  or  their  pronunciation 
found  in  the  vocabiilary.  We  try  to  recall  enough  from  our 
study  of  the  early  Greeks  to  get  the  atmosphere  we  need.     Then 


57]  Literature  and  Reading  57 

we  are  ready  for  the  story.  For  the  first  two  or  three  lessons  the 
children  read  at  sight,  or  if  interest  lags  or  the  language  proves 
too  difficult,  the  teacher  reads.  Interest  must  not  be  lost  and 
the  story  must  move.  Later  on  much  of  the  reading  is  done 
outside  of  class  time,  and  selections  only  are  read  during  the 
lesson  period.  After  the  first  lesson  or  two  on  a  story,  a  few 
minutes  are  spent  at  the  beginning  of  each  period  discussing 
briefly  what  has  already  been  read,  reproducing  portions 
of  the  story,  or  selecting  the  main  points.  If  the  children 
do  most  of  the  actual  reading  at  home,  much  of  the  class 
period  is  used  for  this  work.  We  believe,  however,  that 
throughout  this  school  year  a  large  part  of  the  time  allotted  to 
literature  in  our  programs  should  be  used  for  reading  aloud. 
This  daily  study  of  the  finest  English  we  can  give  the  children 
enlarges  their  vocabularies  and  is  the  best  kind  of  training  for  a 
correct  and  pleasing  style  of  their  own.  Then,  too,  they  need 
the  practice  in  reading  for  its  own  sake. 

In  the  first  Hawthorne  stories  which  are  read  the  children  often 
have  trouble  with  the  pronunciation  or  meaning  of  new  words. 
Little  time  is  taken  from  the  lesson  to  teach  these  words,  however; 
the  correct  pronunciation  or  definition  is  given  by  some  pupil 
or  by  the  teacher,  in  order  that  the  thread  of  the  story  shall  not 
be  broken,  and  the  reading  goes  on.  Many  of  these  words  are 
later  studied  in  the  language  or  spelling  lesson  where  the  diacriti- 
cal marks  and  the  use  of  the  dictionary  are  taught.  The  dictionary 
is  used  to  some  extent,  however,  when  the  children  are  asked 
to  read  in  preparation  for  the  literature  lesson. 

To  help  them  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  story,  and 
to  teach  them  appreciation  of  good  English,  questions  are  asked 
as  the  reading  goes  on.  These  questions  are  few  in  number  but 
should  require  thoughtfiil  answers.  After  reading  a  certain 
part  of  the  "Three  Golden  Apples"  these  questions  were  asked 
by  the  teacher:  "Describe  the  cup  which  Hercules  saw  coming 
toward  him  over  the  billows.  With  what  is  it  compared? 
Why?  How  does  Hawthorne  give  you  an  idea  of  the  size  of  the 
'intolerably  big  giant,' Antaeus?  How  did  Hercules  know  that 
the  giant  had  been  standing  there  a  long  time? " 

In  almost  every  story  there  are  paragraphs  which  the  teacher 
reads.  Much  is  lost  if  the  children  are  allowed  to  blunder 
through  fine  passages  which  the  teacher's  rendering  will  make 


58  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [58 

clear  to  all.  If  there  is  dialogue,  characters  are  assigned  and  the 
impersonators  stand  before  the  class  and  read  each  his  own 
part.  Better  expression  is  gained  by  this  method,  and  the  way 
is  prepared  for  dramatizing,  which  is  often  used  as  a  means  of 
review. 

Not  all  the  stories  are  studied  with  the  same  amount  of  thor- 
oughness. Some  are  simply  tasted.  The  teacher  may  have  a 
"definitely  indefinite  aim, "  to  quote  Mr.  Percival  Chubb,  and  the 
intelligent  reading  of  the  story  is  all  she  wishes.  Other  selections 
are  reviewed  with  a  good  deal  of  care  and  in  different  ways  to 
bring  out  the  points  which  the  teacher  wishes  to  emphasize. 
Sometimes  the  children  tell  the  story  from  an  outline  which  was 
made  through  class  discussion,  or  by  an  individual.  "The 
Dragon's  Teeth"  has  been  successfully  reviewed  in  this  way. 
Again  characters  may  be  discussed,  good  and  bad  qualities 
mentioned,  and  these  reinforced  by  quotations  from  the  text. 
One  story  is  sometimes  compared  with  another  where  points  of 
similarity  or  contrast  exist  which  the  children  will  understand. 
Often  the  entire  story  or  certain  portions  are  dramatized,  and 
acted  without  scenery  and  without  costumes  in  the  classroom. 
Last  year  "The  Minotaur"  was  given  with  costume  and  scenery. 
It  was  dramatized  by  two  members  of  the  class  after  it  had  been 
studied  in  the  classroom.     (See  Frontispiece.) 

We  never  intend  to  keep  the  children  so  long  on  one  story 
that  they  lose  interest,  although  we  may  not  have  accomplished 
all  that  we  had  first  intended.  The  ethics  of  the  story  are  not 
neglected,  but  we  try  to  avoid  moralizing. 

Poems  are  presented  to  the  class  as  wholes.  There  is  some 
preliminary  talk,  if  necessary,  to  get  the  proper  background, 
but  the  poet  is  allowed  to  tell  his  own  story.  Often  it  is  best  for 
the  teacher  to  read  the  entire  poem  to  the  class,  then,  after  a  few 
questions  or  explanations,  it  may  be  read  by  the  children,  though 
there  may  be  passages  even  in  the  second  reading  which  the 
teacher  again  interprets.  It  is  easy  to  spoil  a  selection  by  too 
many  questions.  The  poet's  impression  should  be  the  one  left 
with  the  child  without  having  him  tell  what  that  impression 
is. 

In  addition  to  the  poeAis  selected  for  class  study  the  children 
are  asked  to  read  for  themselves  in  Burt's  Poems  Every  Child 
Should  Know,  and  be  prepared  to  read  some  selection  to  the 


59]  Literature  and  Reading  59 

class.  A  half  hour  is  frequently  devoted  to  this  kind  of  work. 
They  are  also  asked  to  memorize  selections  of  their  own  choice 
beside  those  learned  by  the  entire  class.  One  period  each  week 
is  devoted  to  the  recitation  of  memory  selections.  We  try  to  have 
quotations  learned  in  previous  years  recited  often  enough  to  keep 
them  in  mind.  The  children  especially  delight  in  repeating  the 
passages  learned  from  Alice  in  Wonderland  in  the  third  grade. 

The  year's  work  in  reading  and  literature  can  be  briefly 
summarized.  We  aim  to  give  the  children  good  literature  which 
shall  interest  them,  which  shall  present  high  ideals  of  courage, 
strength,  and  perseverance,  and  which  shall  be  models  of  good 
English  usage.  In  the  teaching  we  try  to  keep  alive  the  love  for 
good  books  by  moving  rapidly  enough  to  suit  our  impatient  little 
readers  who  are  always  anxious  to  know  what  comes  next,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  make  a  simple  study  of  scenes,  characters,  and 
the  development  of  the  story,  and  to  give  a  good  deal  of  prac- 
tice in  story-telling.     We  try  also  to  add  some  things  worth 

while  in  the  poems  memorized. 

M.  G.  P. 


LANGUAGE 

Grade  V 

Oral  Language.  In  nearly  all  the  subjects  taught  in  the 
fifth  grade  ample  opportunity  is  given  for  oral  expression.  In 
the  reading  and  literature  there  is  frequent  demand  for  the 
narration  of  incidents  and  the  description  of  characters  and 
places.  History  also  affords  opportunity  for  narration,  not 
only  the  simple  time  sequence,  but  also  that  which  leads  to  a 
climax.  Mathematics  calls  for  explanation  and  conciseness  of 
statement.  Nature-study  requires  exactness  in  reporting  ob- 
servations of  birds  and  of  trees.  Geography  abounds  in  oppor- 
tunities for  description. 

As  clear  expression  is  dependent  upon  clear  thinking  we  say 
little  about  the  language  during  a  recitation,  but  try  to  make 
the  subject  clear.  We  do  this  by  asking  questions  which  require 
thought  and  careful  arrangement;  by  choosing  the  essentials 
in  the  selections  read  from  history,  geography,  and  other 
studies,  and  by  making  summaries  of  topics. 

There  is  some  oral  language  work,  however,  which  is  inde- 
pendent of  other  school  subjects.  Every  two  or  three  weeks 
we  have  a  half  hour  devoted  to  story-telling.  In  this  period 
the  children  tell  to  the  class  stories  which  they  have  selected 
and  studied  at  home.  These  are  often  given  with  enthusiasm 
and  expression;  frequently  the  author's  language  is  reproduced. 
This  has  proved  to  be  both  a  popular  and  a  profitable  exercise. 
In  this  exercise  better  results  have  been  gained  by  speaking 
of  the  good  points  and  choosing  the  best  stories  than  by  criti- 
cising the  poor  work.  The  children  can  be  led  to  imitate  without 
losing  enthusiasm  and  interest,  while  adverse  criticism  of  their 
oral  expression  often  makes  them  self-conscious  and  discouraged. 

In  all  the  oral  work  we  make  rapid  corrections  in  language 
when  necessary,  giving  the  word  for  which  the  child  is  hesi- 
tating, supplying  synonyms  to  avoid  repetition,  and  using 
some  simple  device  to  get  rid  of  the  ever  recurring  and,  hut,  so, 
and  then.  If  the  sentences  are  poorly  worded,  we  either  give 
the  correct  form  or  ask  the  children  to  try  again  after  thinking 
60]  60 


6i]  Language  6i 

through  just  what  they  wish  to  say.  We  also  encourage  and 
commend  the  use  of  new  words,  and  insist,  as  far  as  possible,  on 
clear  and  connected  statements.  We  make  much  of  the  good 
English  used,  and  often  analyze  it  in  a  simple  way. 

To  keep  the  interest  in  the  different  subjects  the  work  must 
move  with  some  rapidity.  Therefore,  the  problem  seems  to  be 
to  work  rapidly  enough  to  hold  this  interest,  and  at  the  same 
time  make  distinct  gains  in  oral  expression. 

Written  Language.  Composition.  Since  so  much  oral  ex- 
pression is  required  in  the  different  subjects,  the  language 
period  is  largely  devoted  to  written  work  which  may  or  may 
not  reqiiire  oral  preparation.  The  composition  subjects  are 
largely  taken  from  other  studies.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
better  results  are  obtained  if  written  work  is  preceded  by  oral. 
Then,  too,  interest  in  the  subject  has  already  been  aroused, 
which  is  a  saving  of  time  and  also  produces  better  results.  A 
third  reason  is  that  the  composition  gives  each  child  an  oppor- 
tunity to  show  what  he  has  gained  from  a  given  subject  and 
from  the  teacher.  The  teacher  also  has  the  opportunity  to 
help  individuals,  as  well  as  to  test  her  own  instruction.  If  the 
children  are  familiar  with  the  subject  matter  and  are  interested 
in  it,  they  will  unconsciously  use  better  English,  and  will  also 
be  able  to  give  some  definite  attention  to  the  form  of  expression. 

Some  of  the  subjects  which  have  been  taken  from  history 
and  geography  are  The  Battle  of  Marathon,  Spartan  Training, 
Thermopylae,  Alexander,  A  Visit  to  a  Russian  Village,  A  Boat 
Ride  through  Holland.  Reproductions  of  parts  of  The  Tangle- 
wood  Tales  or  studies  of  such  characters  as  Jason  and  Theseus 
have  proved  of  interest  and  value.  In  these  the  children  often 
show  that  they  have  gained  many  new  words  and  expressions. 
The  dramatizing  of  these  stories  in  whole  or  in  part  has  been  a 
feature  of  the  English  work.  Last  year  The  Minotaur  was  drama- 
tized by  a  group  of  children;  and  the  play  was  given  with  scenery 
and  costumes.  The  arrangement  in  acts  and  scenes  was  almost 
entirely  the  children's  work.  In  deciding  upon  and  obtaining 
costumes  and  scenery  they  were  helped  by  the  teacher  and  other 
friends.  Even  in  this  the  children  did  a  great  deal  by  hunting 
up  illustrations  showing  Greek  costumes,  and  by  making  nu- 
merous visits  to  the  Art  Museums.  The  following  is  an  extract 
from  the  play:    (See  Frontispiece.) 


62 


Elementary  School  Curriculum 
Act  I. — Scene  i 


[62 


Place — ^Trozene,  Argolis.     In  the  woods. 
Characters — ^thra  (Theseus'  mother),  Theseus. 
Curtain  rises  and  shows  jEthra  and  Theseus  seated  on  a  large 
stone. 

Theseus  ' '  Oh,  mother,  you  tell  me  my  father  is  a  great  king,  why 
do  I  never  see  him?" 

JEthra  "Indeed,  he  is  a  king,  a  good  and  noble  king,  my  dear 
son;  but  a  monarch  has  his  people  to  care  for, 
and  he  cannot  spare  time  for  his  Uttle  boy  nor 
for  his  wife. " 

Theseus  ' '  But,  mother,  where  is  my  father,  and  why  are  we  stay- 
ing here  with  grandfather  in  Argos?" 

Mihra  "Your  father  is  the  great  king  ^Egeus  who  rules  over 
Attica,  and  we  are  here  because  your  father  lived 
here  before  he  was  called  to  Attica," 

Theseus  "Well,  mother,  then  cannot  I  go  to  Attica  and  see  him? 
Oh!  I  so  long  to  see  my  father!" 

^thra  "Your  father  dwells  in  the  famous  City  of  Athens,  and 
you  are  too  small  to  take  such  a  journey. " 

Theseus  "But  I  am  growing  fast,  mother.  Grandfather  keeps 
my  measure  on  the  door  in  the  Throne  Room 
at  the  Royal  Palace.  Do  come  and  look  at  it, 
mother,  and  see  how  fast  I 'grow." 

Mthra  "Not  now,  my  son,  but  I  will  look  at  it  sometime.  You 
need  to  grow  strong  as  well  as  tall,  for  it 
requires  strength  for  such  a  long  journey." 

Theseus  "Oh,  how  soon  do  you  think  I  shall  be  strong 
enough?" 

jEthra       "Why,  you  are  only  a  Httle  boy.     See  if  you  can  lift 
this  rock  on  which  we  are  sitting." 
{Theseus  vainly  tries  to  lift  rock.) 

Mthra  "You  see  how  it  is,  my  Theseus,  you  need  far  more 
strength  before  you  can  go  to  Athens  and  tell 
King  ^geus  that  you  are  his  son,  for  on  the  way 
you  will  meet  with  many  dangers. " 

Theseus  "Oh,  mother,  how  shall  I  know  when  I  have  this 
great  strength?" 


63] 


Language 


63 


Mthra       "When  you  can  lift  this  large  stone.    Then  and  not  till 

then  can  you  ventvire  on  this  journey." 
Theseus     ' '  And  if  I  do  lift  the  stone  will  you  give  me  permission 

to  go?" 
/Ethra       "Yes,  when  you  have  accomplished  this  and  can  show 
me  what  is  hidden  beneath  it,   I  promise  to  let 
you  go." 
Theseus     "Something  hidden  beneath  it!     What  can  it  be?     I 

will  try  again  and  struggle  till  I  succeed." 
JElthra      "Do  not  worry  yourself  about  it  now,  for  you  are  3^oung, 
and  I  do  not  want  you  to  leave  me  for  many  years  to 
come,   oh  my  Theseus. " 
Theseus     ''Dear  mother,  I  do  not  wish  to  leave  you,  but  I  long 
so  to  see  my  father!     How  can    I    get    strong 
quickly?" 
/Eihra      "You  must  take  good  care  of  your  body,  and  we  will 
come  here  every  day  so  you  ma}'  practice.     If 
you  are  patient  and  good,  the  great  and  good  Zeus 
will    give    you    your    strength,    my    son.      Be 
patient!" 

Many  chapters  from  Heidi  have  been  dramatized  and  given 
in  the  classroom  without  scenery  and  without  costume.  Ac- 
counts of  class  or  group  excursions  for  the  study  of  trees  and 
birds  are  occasionally  used  as  composition  subjects.  Two  ex- 
cursions to  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  one  to  study  the  Acrop- 
olis and  the  Parthenon,  the  other  to  study  the  Pantheon,  the 
old  Roman  chariot  and  other  objects  of  interest,  have  furnished 
excellent  material  for  composition  work.  During  the  year  the 
children  study  a  few  pictures.  They  are  sometimes  asked  to 
write  a  description  of  a  picture  or  tell  a  story  which  it  suggests. 

Oiir  elementary  school  paper,  School  Days,  is  pubUshed  every 
month  of  the  school  year.  This  gives  the  children  an  incentive 
to  write  of  individual  experiences,  to  produce  imaginary  stories, 
and  to  try  their  hand  at  verse -making.  One  of  the  accepted 
contributions  is  given  below. 

Winter 


When  the  snow  falls  from  the  leaden  sky 
And  covers  the  woods  and  the  hill. 


64  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [64 

When  the  brook  that  used  to  run  merrily  by 

Is  silent,  frozen,  and  still, 
Those  are  the  days  that  the  children  love 

For  then  they  can  skating  go 
And  coasting  down  the  long  smooth  hill 

Or  play  in  the  soft,  white  snow. 
No  gentle  breeze  that  in  summer  blows 

Is  half  so  dear  to  me 
As  the  hoarse,  bluff  voice  of  the  winter  wind 

As  it  calls  to  us  in  glee. 
And  children's  voices  answer 

In  joy  to  the  wind's  glad  call 
And  a  happy  day  in  the  children's  hearts 

Is  the  day  of  the  first  snowfall. 

Titles  of  other  contributions  that  appeared  in  the  school 
magazine  are  "A  Christmas  in  Germany,"  "The  Snowman," 
"Enid  and  the  Witch,"  "Discovery  of  the  Hudson  River," 
"Avalon  by  the  Sea." 

Unless  the  subject-matter  is  fresh  in  the  minds  of  the  chil- 
dren, it  is  necessary  to  spend  some  time  in  oral  preparation 
for  the  written  work.  If  the  children  are  to  do  their  best,  they 
must  know  definitely  what  is  required  and  enter  on  their  task 
with  a  certain  amount  of  enthusiasm.  Just  how  much  pre- 
paratory work  is  necessary  is  often  a  difficult  question  to  decide. 
It  depends  very  much  on  the  knowledge  of  and  interest  in  the 
subject,  the  attitude  of  the  children  at  the  particular  hour,  and 
the  attitude  of  the  teacher.  There  are  always  children  in 
every  class  who  are  more  quickly  interested  than  others  and 
who  seem  almost  at  a  glance  to  understand  what  is  required. 
The  influence  of  their  enthusiasm  and  knowledge,  both  of  which 
become  apparent  in  this  preliminary  work,  is  of  the  greatest 
value  to  the  slower  children. 

An  outline  is  usually  given  the  class  to  guide  them  in  the 
arrangement  of  topics.  This  outHne  is  sometimes  given  by  the 
teacher,  sometimes  it  is  the  result  of  class  discussion.  As  a  rule 
it  is  placed  on  the  blackboard  for  reference.  Later  in  the  year  each 
child  is  often  asked  to  make  his  own  outline.  However  the  out- 
line is  made  it  should  be  a  simple  one,  rarely  of  more  than 
three  or  four  topics,  including  the  introduction  and  conclusion. 


65]  Language  65 

Most  of  the  compositions  are  short.  We  do  not  secure 
brevity  by  limiting  the  children  to  so  many  words  or  pages,  but 
by  using  simple  outhnes,  limiting  the  subject,  and  by  having 
the  class  write  on  certain  selected  topics  from  a  longer  outline. 
Assigning  the  different  topics  in  an  outline  to  special  groups 
has  proved  to  be  an  interesting  and  profitable  exercise  in 
composition. 

The  actual  writing  is  done  either  in  the  classroom,  or  at  home 
as  a  part  of  the  regular  home  study  required.  Often  a  subject 
is  assigned  and  the  children  are  asked  to  make  home  preparation 
for  the  writing  by  taking  notes,  reading  certain  references,  or 
by  making  an  outline.  Then  the  writing  is  done  in  the  class- 
room. Sometimes  the  preparation  is  made  in  the  classroom, 
and  the  writing  is  done  at  home,  and  frequently  both  preparation 
and  writing  make  a  single  class  exercise.  The  compositions 
when  finished  are  read  aloud  to  the  class  in  whole  or  in  part, 
either  by  the  teacher  or  the  children.  This  part  of  the  work  is 
much  enjoyed  by  all.  After  a  composition  has  been  read,  the 
author  is  given  the  opportunity  to  make  the  first  comment  on 
his  own  work.  Then  the  other  children  are  asked  to  criticise 
the  paper  as  to  interest,  the  beginning  (is  it  a  good  introduction?) , 
the  ending  (does  it  round  out  the  topic  ?) ,  the  repetition  of  words 
and  phrases,  clearness  of  statement,  and  adherence  to  facts. 
We  insist,  as  far  as  possible,  on  constructive  criticism,  and 
commend  the  good  points  in  each  paper.  Much  better  results 
are  gained  in  written  English,  as  well  as  in  oral,  by  commending 
the  good  most  generously  instead  of  making  defects  the  burden 
of  the  criticisms. 

The  criticisms  of  the  children  and  the  teacher  are  noted  in 
writing  by  the  authors,  who  are  now  asked  to  correct  and  im- 
prove their  own  work.  The  papers  which  have  not  been  read 
and  criticised  by  the  children  are  looked  over  by  the  teacher, 
who  indicates  in  red  ink  the  changes  to  be  made.  In  making 
these  corrections  and  improvements  the  pupils  are  asked  some- 
times to  re-write  the  entire  paper,  sometimes  simply  the  parts 
which  are  to  be  changed.  Excellent  results  have  been  obtained 
by  returning  compositions  for  correction  a  month  or  more  after 
they  were  written. 

The  children  are  not  asked  to  correct  all  their  compositions. 
Often  the  papers  are  read  by  the  teacher,  the  common  errors 


66  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [66 

noted  and  made  the  subject  of  the  next  language  lesson.  In 
these  lessons  spelling,  punctuation,  use  of  capitals,  etc.,  receive 
attention.  The  aim  in  this  work  is  to  teach  the  children  to 
apply  their  knowledge  of  punctuation,  and  of  capitals,  and  to 
make  them  critical  of  their  own  writing.  Considerable  attention 
is  given  to  the  form  of  the  composition.  There  must  be  margins 
at  the  left  side  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  paper,  paragraphs 
must  be  indented,  and  the  penmanship  must  be  the  best  which 
the  children  can  produce  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  speed. 

Another  form  of  composition  work  which  is  used  throughout 
the  year  is  letter  writing.  The  form  of  the  social  letter  has  been 
taught  in  previous  grades.  The  arrangement  and  punctuation 
of  the  heading,  etc.,  still  require  a  great  deal  of  drill.  Most  of 
the  letters  written  are  to  real  persons — members  of  the  family 
away  from  home,  school  friends,  or  classmates  absent  from  school. 
The  imaginary  letter  is  occasionally  asked  for.  Heidi  writing 
to  Klara  from  her  mountain  home  has  been  a  favorite  subject. 
The  business  letter,  too,  receives  a  good  deal  of  attention.  Last 
year  each  child  wrote  a  letter  to  some  business  firm  which  re- 
quired a  reply.  This  proved  very  interesting  and  the  results 
were  excellent. 

The  punctuation  needed  in  the  written  work  largely  deter- 
mines the  points  to  be  taught  and  the  drill  required.  The  rules 
taught  in  previous  years  need  to  be  kept  in  constant  review. 
The  new  rules  given  are:  the  use  of  the  comma  after  yes  and  no, 
after  persons  addressed,  in  series,  and  in  quotations.  For 
statements  of  these  rules  the  children  are  referred  to  Buehler 
and  Hotchkiss's  Modern  English  Lessons,  which  also  contains 
many  exercises  for  punctuation. 

Dictation  and  Spelling.  In  this  grade  a  prominent  place 
is  given  to  dictation.  For  this  work  short  fables  are  used, 
poems,  words  of  songs,  short  quotations  from  prose  and  poetry, 
selections  from  geography,  history,  and  other  school  subjects. 
Sometimes  the  selection  is  read,  perhaps  studied  by  the  child- 
ren. Difficult  words  are  pointed  out  by  the  teacher  or  written 
on  ^.he  blackboard  and  divided  into  syllables.  Children  may 
be  asked  to  observe  the  spelling  of  certain  words,  then  close 
their  books  and  write  these  words  on  the  blackboard  or  on  paper. 
Pronunciation  is  studied  by  using  the  dictionary.  Punctuation 
is   noticed   and  explained   when  necessary.       Then  books  are 


6y]  Language  67 

closed  and  sentences  are  dictated.  Often  a  selection  is  assigned 
for  home  study  and  dictated  to  the  class  as  a  spelling 
exercise,  or  it  may  be  given  for  home  study  and  written  from 
memory.  We  use  this  method  often  in  learning  the  words  of 
songs. 

For  formal  spelling  lessons,  we  take  words  from  the  different 
school  subjects,  abbreviations  frequently  used  in  arithmetic 
and  geography,  proper  names,  and  words  misspelled  in  the 
written  work  of  the  class,  and  use  also  lists  from  the  Rational 
Spelling  Book,  Part  II,  which  contains  the  common  synonyms 
and  homonyms. 

Poor  enunciation  and  slovenly  pronunciation  are  sometimes 
the  cause  of  poor  spelling.  To  remedy  this,  in  assigning  the 
lesson  we  make  sure  that  children  are  able  to  pronounce  all  the 
words,  frequently  have  words  divided  into  syllables,  and  give 
some  drill  with  special  reference  to  clear  enunciation.  The 
dictionary  is  used  in  connection  with  this  exercise,  not  only  to 
teach  the  children  the  correct  pronunciation  and  meaning  of 
words,  but  also  to  give  instruction  and  drill  in  its  use. 

Oral  spelling  usually  precedes  the  written  work.  In  the 
written  spelling  the  words  may  be  arranged  in  columns,  per- 
haps divided  into  syllables;  more  often  they  are  written  in 
sentences,  either  dictated  by  the  teacher  or  original  with  each 
child.  It  has  been  found  helpful  to  have  each  child  keep  a  list 
of  his  own  misspelled  words  on  which  he  is  examined  frequently. 
SpelHng  matches  have  been  found  to  be  stimulating  and  to  give 
an  excellent  review. 

Grammar.  Scarcely  a  beginning  is  made  in  the  study  of 
grammar.  That  part  of  the  English  work  is  left  for  the  sixth 
and  seventh  grades.  The  recognition  of  the  sentence  is  dwelt 
upon  until  the  children  grasp  the  idea  that  a  group  of  words 
is  not  a  sentence  unless  it  expresses  a  complete  thought.  Then 
the  different  kinds  of  sentences  are  taught. 

The  language  work  of  the  fifth  grade  is  an  attempt  to  give 
the  children  the  drill  they  need  in  language  forms,  to  improve 
oral  and  written  expression,  and  to  teach  them  how  to  criti- 
cise and  improve  their  own  work. 

M.  G.  P. 


ARITHMETIC 

Grade  V 

In  its  power  to  sustain  interest  the  arithmetic  of  the  fifth 
grade  may  properly  be  placed  with  geography,  history,  or 
nature-study.  The  children  come  from  the  fourth  grade  with 
a  good  working  knowledge  of  whole  numbers.  By  a  working 
knowledge  is  meant  that  they  can  read  and  write  numbers  up 
to  billions,  that  they  know  the  multiplication  tables,  and  can 
add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide.  In  the  fifth  grade  they 
use  fractions  and  decimals. 

The  outline  of  the  work  is  as  follows: 
Special  work:  Common  and  decimal  fractions. 

1.  Counting.  By  7's,  9's,  12's,  etc.,  as  a  rapid  review  of 
addition  and  multiplication. 

2.  Integers.  Oral:  Rapid  drill  in  review  of  the  four  oper- 
ations. Written:  Abstract  and  concrete  problems  involving 
the  four  operations.  Emphasis  upon  proof  of  work,  upon 
accuracy  and  rapidity. 

3.  Common  fractions.  Fractions  classified  and  terms 
defined.  Oral :  Special  attention  to  business  fractions.  Written: 
Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  easy 
fractions.  Least  common  multiple  developed  and  applied  in 
addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions.  Cancellation  developed 
and  applied  in  multiplication  and  division  of  fractions. 

4.  Decimal  Fractions.  Principles  of  decimal  notation  de- 
veloped from  the  writing  of  U.  S.  money.  Relation  to  common 
fractions  emphasized.  Oral:  Reading  of  decimal  fractions. 
Reduction  of  simple  decimals  to  common  fractions.  Written: 
Addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication  of  decimals.  Special 
emphasis  upon  decimal  equivalents  of  the  business  fractions. 

5.  Problems.  Concrete  problems  in  all  work  of  the  grade. 
Problems  may  involve  more  than  one  operation.  Information 
groups  of  problems. 

Smith's  Grammar  School  Arithmetic  is  used,  and  is  followed 
so  far  as  method'is  concerned.    Young  and  Jackson's  Arithmetics 
are  used  for  supplementary  work. 
68]  68 


69]  Arithmetic  69 

Long  division  being  taught  late  in  the  fourth  grade,  and 
being  a  comparatively  difficult  matter  with  little  children,  needs 
a  good  deal  of  attention  in  the  early  weeks  of  the  fifth  year.  It 
must  be  recalled  step  by  step  after  the  long  summer  holiday, 
and  much  practice  must  be  given  before  the  children  become 
proficient  in  its  use. 

The  essential  processes  which  form  the  work  of  the  first 
four  years  are  quite  as  important  in  the  fifth  and,  through  all 
the  development  of  new  work,  they  are  kept  in  mind  by  vigorous 
abstract  drill.  This  drill  forms  a  vital  part  of  every  lesson. 
Sometimes  it  is  counting  by  3's,  4's,  7's,  or  lo's  up  to  loo's.  This 
reviews  the  multiplication  tables  very  effectively  in  a  relatively 
short  time.  Sometimes  the  drill  takes  the  form  of  a  rapid  suc- 
cession of  abstract  problems  in  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, or  division  as 

7  +  9,  8  4-7,  15-7,  6  X9,  7  X8,  72-^8. 
In  a  five- minute  exercise  every  child  has  an  opportunity  to  recite 
several  times  and  if  no  pupil  has  failed   during  that  time,  the 
children  often  clap  their  hands  with  delight  and  satisfaction. 

Sometimes  problems  in  addition  are  given,  as  7  +  8-I-9  +  7  +  4; 
or  those  involving  both  addition  and  subtraction,  as  9  +  8  —  9  — 
2  =  ?  A  problem  using  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 
division  occasionally  shows  just  how  far  the  drill  has  been  suc- 
cessful, and  how  much  more  is  needed.  Five  minutes'  drill  of 
this  kind  tends  to  make  the  work  accurate  and  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  periods  in  the  school  day.  The  children  realize 
that  facility  in  the  handling  of  abstract  numbers  is  of  practi- 
cal value,  and  they  take  great  satisfaction  in  feeling  sure  of 
themselves. 

The  review  is  not  all  abstract.  Much  attention  is  given  to 
the  solving  of  concrete  problems  involving  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division.  The  text-book  supplies  problems 
that  are  interesting  from  a  practical  standpoint.  They  are 
related  to  other  studies  of  the  curriculum  and  give  much  valuable 
information. 

While  work  in  common  fractions  is  not  entirely  new  in  the 
fifth  year,  the  ideas  of  fractional  value  formed  in  the  lower  grades 
have  to  be  recalled  and  made  clear  in  much  the  same  way  as 
they  were  first  presented.  Objective  work  is  done  early  in  the 
year,  and  indeed  at  any  time  when  it  may  be  necessary,  but  we 


70 


Elementary  School  Curriculum 


[70 


try  in  the  fifth  year  to  get  an  understanding  of  fractional  values 
apart  from  objects.  We  use  a  variety  of  means  to  show 
objectively  the  relations  of  fractions  to  whole  numbers  and  to 
each  other:  one-inch  cubes,  rectangles  drawn  on  the  board  and 
printed  in  the  text-book,  lines  drawn,  or  paper  folded.  With 
lines  like  the  following  (Diagram  I)  the  children  show  that  ^  is  f 
1  t 


1 
_2_ 


1 


i_J L 


and 


and  that  ^  is  f-. 


f  is 


6  .     1 
"5"'    ¥ 


isf 


or 


TJ 


Diagram  I 

They  draw  diagrams  to  prove  that  -^  is 
Then  they  discover  the  principle  of 
reducing  to  lowest  terms  and  learn  the  abstract  process. 

In  diagrams,  such  as  No.  II,  they  show  f,  f,  f,  i|-,  2^, 
and  learn  the  process  of  reducing  integers  to  fractions, 
and  improper  fractions  to  integers  or  mixed  numbers.     They 


'A 

/4 

'A 

Diagram  II 

divide  each  of  the  4ths  into  three  equal  parts  and  find  that  they 
have  i2ths.  Dividing  each  of  the  6ths  into  three  equal  parts 
shows  that  ^  of  "5"  is  ^.     In  the  first  diagram  they  show 

i  of  i 

i  of  i 

iof  i 

iof  i 
which  readily  introduces  the  principle  of  multiplication  of  frac- 
tions.    With  multiplication  we  use  cancellation.     In  the  addi- 


7i]  Arithmetic  71 

tion  and  subtraction  of  fractions  we  work  with  factors  and 
multiples,  but  the  objective  work  is  kept  in  advance  of  the 
process.  When  the  children  make  drawings  to  show  that  |- 
and  -^-  is  |,  and  ^  +i  =f ,  they  see  the  need  of  a  common 
denominator.  Emphasis  is  laid  upon  finding  this  common 
denominator  by  inspection.  Later  on  the  process  of  finding 
the  common  denominator  by  means  of  the  least  common  multiple 
is  taught.  Then  the  addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions  is  sim- 
ple ;  and  after  reduction  to  a  common  denominator  is  clear  the  rest 
of  the  work  is  as  easy  as  with  integers.  In  all  of  the  preceding 
the  way  has  been  made  for  division  of  fractions — ^  contains 
^  twice;  |-^-|-=4;  |"^i  =6.  When  this  is  shown  by  inverting 
the  divisor  we  have  little  more  need  of  objects  to  illustrate 
the  problems. 

All  of  the  work  is  kept  simple  by  using  only  the  fractions 
common  in  daily  life,  that  is  fractions  with  denominators  of 
not  more  than  two  figures.  Just  as  soon  as  the  process  is  clear 
we  begin  to  use  concrete  problems. 

Many  of  the  problems  in  fractions  serve  to  review  and  keep 
in  mind  the  measures  in  common  use  Fractional  parts  of  a 
foot,  a  yard,  a  quart,  bushels,  and  gallons  make  problems  that 
are  related  to  the  life  and  interests  of  fifth  grade  children. 

The  beginning  of  decimals  seems  rather  simple  in  comparison 
with  common  fractions.  It  grows  so  naturally  out  of  the 
writing  of  dollars  and  cents  that  at  the  close  of  the  first  lesson 
in  writing  and  reading  decimals  the  children  usually  agree  that 
"it 's  play."  They  begin  by  writing  a  sum  of  money  involving 
cents,  as  $1.25,  and  see  readily  that  $.25  is  ^  of  a  dollar  or 
tW  of  3-  dollar.  Then  $.50  is  seen  to  be  -^jj\  of  a  dollar 
and  $.75,  ^V  S'^d  so  on  until  the  denominator  100  is  seen 
to  be  equivalent  to  the  two  places  for  cents.  Then  we  read 
decimals  without  money  value  and  when  the  children  see  that 
the  position  of  the  decimal  point  means  the  same  thing  as  the 
denominator  of  the  fraction,  they  are  eager  to  go  on  and  learn 
all  the  decimal  places.  They  learn  to  read  decimals  of  all 
denominations  correctly,  and  then  drill  is  given  upon  the  reading 
of  those  having  not  more  than  five  places.  Then  they  learn  to 
change  decimals  to  common  fractions  and  common  fractions  to 
decimals,  and  in  a  comparatively  short  time  are  ready  for  addi- 
tion  and   subtraction.     In  this  work  it  is  interesting  to  watch 


72  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [72 

their  satisfaction  at  being  able  to  use,  in  this  new  relation, 
the  old  processes,  familiar  from  their  work  in  integers  and 
fractions. 

The  multiplication  of  decimals  is  apt  to  be  rather  difficult, 
but  we  again  use  an  old  process  to  explain  a  new  one.  The  short 
way  of  multiplying  by  10,  100,  or  1000  is  familiar,  and  when  it  is 
discovered  that  raoving  the  decimal  point  one  place  to  the  right 
multiplies  by  ten,  and  moving  it  two  places  to  the  right  multi- 
plies by  100,  the  difficulty  disappears. 

This  work  in  fractions  and  decimals  is  not  carried  into  highly 
organized  processes  and  involved  problems,  but  the  principles 
are  learned  through  use  in  simple  problems  and  the  work  is  kept 
accurate  through  drill  and  the  practice  of  checking  results.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  adding  the  coliimn  twice  in  opposite 
directions  to  prove  addition;  by  adding  subtrahend  and  remain- 
der to  prove  subtraction;  by  multiplying  quotient  and  divisor 
in  division,  and  sometimes  by  casting  out  9's  to  prove  multi- 
plication. 

Some  time  is  given,  practically  every  day,  to  oral  problems. 
These  are  similar  to  the  concrete  problems  given  for  written 
work,  but  smaller  numbers  are  used.  Usually  some  problems 
are  assigned  as  work  to  be  prepared  at  home.  After  the 
principle  of  the  problem  is  clear  we  find  it  profitable  to  give 
some  work  to  be  done  by  the  pupil  alone  to  stimulate  individual 
effort. 

The  arithmetic  period  is  a  happy  one.  The  children  are 
full  of  life  and  vigor.  The  half  hour  is  all  too  short,  and  when 
it  is  done  we  all  want  "just  one  more  problem." 

L.  D. 


GEOGRAPHY 
Grade  V 

The  geography  work  of  the  fourth  grade  is  a  study  of  the 
larger  physical  features  of  North  America,  followed  by  a  study 
of  the  United  States  by  political  divisions,  each  division  being 
considered  as  to  the  occupations  of  its  people  in  general. 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  larger  physical  conditions  of  Europe 
and  Asia  are  considered,  and  the  rnore  irnportant  countries 
are  studied  as  to  special  industrial  features,  relations  in  com- 
merce, and  national  characteristics  of  the  people. 

The  following  outline  shows  the  work  done  in  the  general 
study  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the  topics  used  in  teaching  the 
United  Kingdom  as  a  political  division.  The  other  political 
divisions  are  studied  in  a  similar  manner. 

Eurasia. 

1.  What  it  includes. 

2.  Position. 

Relation  to  other  continents. 
Relation  to  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 

3.  Size. 

Compared  with  other  continents. 

4.  Coast  line. 

Regular  or  irregular. 

Peninsulas. 

Indentations. 

5.  Surface. 

Highlands. 

Himalaya  Mountains. 
Pamirs. 

Ural  Mountains. 
Caucasus  Mountains. 
Alps. 
Pyrenees. 
Lowlands. 

Great  Siberian  Plain. 
Great  Lowland  Plain  of  Europe. 
73]  73 


74  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [74 

6.  Drainage. 

Rivers  of  Europe  (trace  course  of  each). 

Rhine. 

Rhone. 

Seine 

Danube, 

Volga. 

Elbe. 
Rivers  of  Asia. 

Hoangho. 

Yangtse-kiang. 

Ganges. 

Indus. 

Tigris. 

Euphrates. 

7.  Climate. 

Heat  belts. 

Rainfall,  (study  from  rainfall  map). 

Heaviest. 

Least. 

Moderate. 

8.  Plants. 

Tundra  region. 

Northern  forests. 

Trees  of  Southern  Europe. 

Grassy  steppes  and  savannahs. 

Trees  of  the  jungle. 

9.  Animals. 

Of  Europe. 
Of  Asia. 
10.  People. 

Of  Europe. 

Races. 

Characteristics 

Languages. 
Of  Asia. 

Races. 

Characteristics. 

Languages, 


75]  Geography  75 

British  Isles. 

1.  Countries  included. 

2.  Size. 

Compare  with  areas  in  United  States. 

3.  Position. 

Direction  from  other  European  countries. 

4.  Surface. 

5.  Climate. 

Rainfall. 

Amount  (study  rainfall  map). 
Temperature. 

Compare    with     same    latitude    in    North 
America. 

Reasons  for  differe.     nee 

6.  Occupations. 

Agriculture  and  grazing. 

Need  for  agricultural  products. 
What  crops  are  raised. 
In  what  sections. 
Advantages  for  agriculture. 
Importance  of  stock-raising. 

Extent  to  which  carried  on. 
Conditions  favorable  for  grazing. 
Fishing. 

Where  carried  on. 
Chief  centers  of  trade. 
Why  an  important  industry. 
Mining. 

Locate  coal  fields  (study  map  showing 

same) 
Where  iron  and  tin  are  found. 
Importance  of  mining  industry. 
What  uses  are  made  of  coal  and  iron. 
Manufacturing. 

Woolen  manufactures. 

Leeds  and  Bradford  the  centers. 
Kinds  of  woolen  goods  manufactured^ 
Advantages  for  manufacturing. 
What  becomes  of  manufactured  goods. 


y6  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [76 

Cotton  manufactures. 

Manchester  the  center. 

Advantages  for  manufacturing  cotton 

goods. 
Where  manufactured  goods  are  sent. 
Iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

Glasgow,   Sheffield,   Birmingham,  chief 

centers. 
Kinds  of  goods  manufactured. 
Advantages  of  each  center. 
What  becomes  of  manufactured  products. 
Linen  manufactures. 
Belfast  the  center. 
Advantages  for  manufacturing. 
How  linen  is  made. 
Where  it  is  sent. 
Commerce. 
Imports. 
Foods. 

Raw  Materials. 
Exports. 

Manufactured  goods. 
Chief  ports. 

'London. 
Liverpool. 
Southampton. 
CardifE. 
Hull. 
Glasgow. 
Exports  and  imports  of  each. 
With  what   countries  does  each  carry- 
on   trade. 
Trace  most  important  routes  on  maps. 
7.  The  people. 

Nationality. 

Characteristics. 

Government. 

Their  largest  city. 

Other  places  of  interest. 

Their  possessions  shown  by  map. 


Locate 


77]  Geography  77 

The  books  which  have  been  found  most  helpful  and  which 
are  in  constant  use  are  Longmans's  Atlas,  Tarr  &  McMurry's 
Europe  and  other  Continents,  Carpenter's  Europe  and  Asia^ 
Dodge's  Geographies,  and  Adam's  Commercial  Geography. 
Maps,  too,  are  in  daily  use, — wall  maps  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
both  the  physical  and  the  political,  and  outline  maps  of  the 
continents  and  of  political  divisions.  Other  materials  brought 
in  as  occasion  requires  are  pictures,  lantern  slides,  samples  of 
natural  products  or  of  manufactured  goods  of  the  different 
countries  studied. 

As  the  outline  indicates,  the  aim  of  this  year's  work  is  to 
emphasize  the  life  side  of  geography  by  studying  as  thoroughly 
as  time  will  allow  the  characteristic  industries  of  the  different 
countries,  and  to  give  the  children  a  general  idea  of  the  larger 
physical  features  of  Eurasia.  After  telling  the  class  that 
Eurasia  includes  Europe  and  Asia,  they  are  asked  to  locate  it  on 
the  world  map,  with  which  they  are  already  familiar. 

Size,  surface,  and  drainage  are  taught  from  the  map  with 
occasional  references  to  the  text-book.  After  naming  and  locat- 
ing the  waters  surrounding  Eurasia,  the  class  are  asked  to  com- 
pare the  coast  line  of  Europe  and  Asia  with  that  of  North 
America  as  to  length  and  character,  and  to  express  an  opinion  as 
to  the  location  and  the  number  of  good  harbors  they  would 
expect  to  find  in  Eurasia.  The  special  advantages  which  Europe 
has  for  trading  with  all  the  other  continents  is  also  brought  out. 

In  previous  work  the  children  have  used  the  physical  map 
but  little.  Some  time  is  taken  just  here  to  teach  them  how  to 
read  the  surface  from  the  map  and  to  introduce  them  to  the  use 
of  Longmans'  Atlas.  The  highlands  are  located,  general  direc- 
tion noted,  and  highest  mountains  named.  The  lowland  areas 
are  located,  and  compared  in  extent  with  highland  areas.  It  is 
shown  from  the  map  that  the  rivers  of  Asia  flow  to  north,  east, 
and  south,  and  that  most  of  them  have  their  sources  in  the  central 
highlands ;  that  the  rivers  of  Western  Europe  flow  from  the  Alps 
in  all  directions,  and  those  of  Eastern  Europe  from  the  low  hills 
in  Russia, 

In  the  fourth  grade  the  children  learned  the  different  heat 
belts,  and  the  characteristics  of  each.  Therefore  they  can  tell 
in  what  heat  belts  Europe  and  Asia  lie,  and  the  different  temper- 
atures one  may  expect  to  find  in  going  from  north  to  south. 


78  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [78 

Rainfall  is  studied  from  the  rainfall  map.  Areas  of  heavy, 
moderate,  and  light  rainfall  are  located.  The  way  of  measuring 
rainfall  is  explained.  The  average  annual  rainfall  in  New  York 
is  given  in  order  that  comparisons  may  be  made  with  other  cities 
and  countries.  The  children  learn  from  the  map  that  in  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  and  Asia  the  winds  blow  from  the  west. 
As  they  blow  over  the  Atlantic  they  gather  a  great  deal  of 
moisture.  In  consequence  Western  Europe  has  an  abundance  of 
rain.  Farther  toward  the  east  in  Russia  and  Asia  there  is  little 
rainfall,  because  the  winds  have  lost  most  of  their  moisture.  By 
comparing  the  rainfall  map  with  the  physical  map,  the  children 
find  that  the  heaviest  rainfall  in  Europe  is  in  highland  areas, 
and  are  then  told  the  effect  mountains  have  on  rainfall. 

The  plants  and  animals  found  in  different  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia  are  studied,  using  information  gathered  by  children  from 
books,  visits  to  the  Bronx  and  other  zoological  parks,  pictures, 
and  personal  experiences. 

In  studying  the  people  we  read  from  text-books  and  geo- 
graphical readers  the  characteristics  of  the  white  and  yellow 
races,  locate  large  sections  where  they  are  found  in  each  conti- 
nent, and  enumerate  the  different  languages  spoken. 

Outline  maps  are  used  in  connection  with  many  of  these 
topics.  Important  indentations  and  peninsulas  are  named, 
boundaries  of  different  countries  indicated,  rivers  and  mountains 
located,  and  the  distribution  of  plant  and  animal  life  shown. 

This  concludes  the  work  on  Eurasia  as  a  whole.  Europe  and 
Asia  are  now  studied  by  political  divisions  with  special  reference 
to  the  occupations  of  the  people. 

A  very  brief  study  is  made  of  the  physical  features  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  using  the  map  as  much  as  possible.  In  order 
that  children  may  locate  places  more  exactly,  and  because  of  the 
comparisons  which  they  are  constantly  asked  to  make,  they  need 
to  know  something  of  latitude  and  longitude.  They  are  told 
that  the  distance  north  and  south  of  the  equator  is  called  latitude, 
that  the  circles  on  the  globe  parallel  to  the  equator  mark  the 
distance  from  the  equator,  that  all  places  on  the  same  parallel 
are  equally  distant  from  the  equator.  This  is  followed  by  drill 
in  finding  the  latitude  of  important  cities  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  The  children  are  not  asked  to  give  the  exact 
latitude,  but  to  use  the  nearest  parallel  shown  on  the  map. 


79]  Geography  79 

Facts  about  longitude  are  told  in  much  the  same  way.  The 
object  is  to  give  a  simple  working  knowledge  of  latitude  and 
longitude  for  this  year's  study.  The  reasons  for  differences  of 
temperature  in  similar  latitudes — as  between  the  British  Isles 
and  Labrador — are  brought  out  through  class  discussion. 

The  general  method  used  in  studying  every  industry  is  first 
to  get  information  as  abundant  as  may  be  on  the  product  itself — 
such  as  the  amount  produced,  the  character  of  the  product, — 
and  then  to  find  reasons  for  the  existence  of  that  particular 
industry  at  that  particular  place.  In  taking  up  agriculture  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  the  products  are  compared  with  those  of 
Labrador  and  of  our  own  latitude,  bringing  out  the  reasons  for 
the  differences  in  the  one  case  and  the  similarities  in  the  other. 
The  need  of  agriculture  and  the  importance  of  stock-raising  can 
best  be  shown  by  having  children  find  out  the  population  of  the 
British  Isles,  noting  especially  the  population  of  England,  and 
comparing  the  figures  with  those  of  the  United  States  in  connec- 
tion with  the  area  of  each  country.  This  also  teaches  them  how 
to  get  information  from  the  tables  of  areas  and  populations  to 
which  they  will  often  be  referred  throughout  the  year. 

In  studying  mining,  comparisons  are  constantly  made  with  the 
United  States,  and  Great  Britain's  place  among  the  five  leading 
coal  producing  countries  of  the  world  is  given.  The  number  of 
miners  in  Great  Britain  is  mentioned  to  show  the  extent  of  the 
industry,  the  dependence  of  one  industry  upon  others,  and  to 
emphasize  the  demand  for  agricultural  products. 

The  children  of  the  Horace  Mann  School  have  travelled  a 
great  deal,  both  in  our  own  country  and  in  Europe,  and  are  there- 
fore able  to  give  considerable  information  on  many  topics  from 
personal  experience.  Often  some  child  can  tell  of  his  visit  to  a 
coal  mine  or  some  factory  in  a  way  which  proves  interesting  and 
instructive  to  the  class. 

Considerable  time  is  spent  in  teaching  the  manufactures  of 
the  British  Isles,  following  pretty  closely  the  topics  given  in  the 
outline.  The  children  are  required  to  bring  to  the  class  as  much 
information  as  they  are  able  to  gather,  special  topics  often  being 
assigned  to  individual  pupils.  They  are  also  asked  to  bring  to 
the  classroom  whenever  they  are  able  articles  showing  charac- 
teristic manufactures.  The  advantages  for  manufacturing  and 
the  disposal  of  manufactured  goods  are  brought  out  chiefly 


8o  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [80 

through  class  discussions.     Here,  too,  the  dependence  of  man- 
ufacturing on  mining  and  agriculture  is  emphasized. 

If  agriculture,  fishing,  mining,  and  manufacturing  have  been 
taught  successfull) ,  it  will  be  an  easy  matter  for  the  class  to 
name  the  chief  exports  and  imports,  and  they  will  be  fairly 
familiar  with  the  different  ports  and  the  character  of  their  trade. 
This  topic  is  largely  a  review  of  previous  work,  as  is  also  the  last 
topic — the  people. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  London  and  of  other  interesting 
places  in  the  United  Kingdom,  much  use  is  made  of  the  lantern 
and  of  photographs.  Only  a  few  slides  are  shown  at  one  time, 
and  the  children  are  usually  asked  to  contribute  information  or 
interesting  incidents  from  their  own  experience  as  the  pictures 
appear  on  the  screen. 

While  the  location  of  places  has  been  mentioned  only  in- 
cidentally, it  is  made  an  important  feature  of  the  work.  Not 
only  commercial  and  industrial  centers,  but  places  of  historical 
interest  and  of  scenic  beauty  are  located.  The  children  are 
required  to  point  out  these  locations  on  wall  maps  and  to  indicate 
them  on  blank  outline  maps  until  they  become  perfectly''  familiar 
with  them.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  for  example,  we  hold  the 
children  responsible  for  a  fairly  exact  location  of  the  following 
cities  :  London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Manchester,  and  Leeds. 
An  approximate  location  is  required  of  such  towns  as  Cardiff, 
Southhampton,  Sheffield,  Hull,  Edinburgh,  and  Belfast. 

Other  important  countries  of  Europe  and  Asia  are  studied, 
using  the  same  general  plan.  Industries  are  constantly  com- 
pared with  those  in  the  United  States  and  other  European  and 
Asiatic  countries  already  considered. 

The  work  of  the  grade  is  reviewed  at  the  end  of  the  year  from 

the  standpoint  of  industries.     Maps  are  made  showing  location 

of  characteristic  industries  in  particular  sections  of  Eurasia,  and 

conditions  favorable  for  that  industry  in  the  locaHties  mentioned 

are  discussed. 

M.  G.  P. 


HISTORY 
Grade  V 

In  the  third  and  fourth  grades  the  geography  and  history 
are  combined.  In  the  third  grade  Home  History  is  studied  in 
connection  with  Home  Geography.  In  the  fourth  year  biog- 
raphies of  representative  men  associated  with  the  early  history 
of  the  United  States  are  given  in  connection  with  the  geography 
of  North  America.  In  the  fifth  year  geography  and  history  are 
taught  as  separate  subjects.  The  geography  is  a  study  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  the  history  a  study  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
This  work  in  Greek  and  Roman  history  is  followed  in  the  sixth 
and  seventh  grades  by  a  study  of  mediaeval  history  and  the 
history  of  the  United  States. 

Greek  and  Roman  history  thus  takes  its  place  in  a  general 
survey  of  European  history  as  a  background  for  a  more  intelli- 
gent study  of  American  history  later  in  the  course.  Special 
emphasis  is  laid  upon  those  facts  in  ancient  history  which  tend 
to  develop  an  appreciation  of  literature  and  art  and  aid  in  their 
interpretation. 

The  topics  considered  are  as  follows: 

Greek  History  Outline. 

I.  Oriental  peoples  near  the  Greeks. 

1.  The  Egyptians. 

(a)  Geographical  features  of  Egypt. 

(b)  Location  of  Thebes. 

(c)  Monimients  and  buildings. 

Pyramids,  obelisks,  temples. 

(d)  Manner  of  living. 

(e)  How  we  know  their  earl)-  history. 

2.  The  Phoenicians. 

(a)  Location  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

(b)  Phoenicia's  great  navigators  and  merchants. 

(c)  Their  manufactures. 

8i]  8i 


82  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [82 

3.   The  Persian  kingdom  under  Darius  I. 

(a)  Extent. 

(b)  Government. 

(c)  Resources. 

(d)  Luxury. 

II.  The  earliest  Greeks. 

1.  The  home  of  their  ancestors. 

2.  The  migration  into  Greece. 

3.  Life  in  early  Greece. 

(a)  Food. 

(b)  Clothing. 

(c)  Houses. 

(d)  Migratory  habits. 

(e)  Attitude  of  one  tribe  toward  another. 

4.  What  Homer  tells  of  them. 

(a)  The  Trojan  War. 

(b)  The  return  of  Ulysses. 

5.  What,  according  to  legend,  the  Greeks  learned  from 

neighboring  peoples. 

(a)  From  the  Phoenicians. 

(b)  "        "    Egyptians. 

6.  Difference  this  knowledge  made  in  their  way  of  living. 

III.  Greek  colonization  in  the  Mediterranean. 

1.  Reasons  for  sending  out  colonies. 

2.  The  settlement  of  Chalcidice. 

3.  Extent  and  influence  of  colonization,  (see  map). 

IV.  Early  Sparta,  750  B.C. 

1.  Location. 

2.  Character  of  Lacedaemon. 

3.  Institutions  and  laws  attributed  to  Lycurgus. 

(a)  Why  they  bear  his  name. 

(b)  Object  of  these  laws  and  institutions. 

(c)  Training  of  the  boys  and  gir^*^. 

(d)  Occupation  of  the  men. 

(e)  Dress. 

(f)  Houses. 

(g)  Food. 

(h)  Money  used. 
(i)  Government, 
(j)    Different  classes. 


Ss]  History  83 

4.  Conquest  of  Messenia. 

5.  The  way  the  Spartans  treated  the  conquered. 

V.  Early  Athens,  750  b.c. 

1.  Location. 

2.  Geographical  features  of  Attica. 

3.  Government. 

4.  Trouble  between  the  rich  and  the  poor. 

5.  First  written  laws  drawn  up  by  Draco  in  621  B.C. 

(a)  Character  of  these  laws. 

(b)  Why  they  did  not  put  an  end  to  the  trouble 

between  the  rich  and  the  poor. 

6.  Solon  and  what  he  did  for  the  Athenians. 

(a)  What  we  know  of  Solon  before  he  was  made 

legislator  in  594  b.c. 

(b)  Object  of  the  reforms  he  introduced. 

(c)  Some  of  the  measures  proposed  by  him. 

VI.  The  bonds  which  held  the  Greeks  together. 

1.  Blood  relationship. 

2.  Common  rehgion. 

3.  Common  language. 

4.  The  oracles. 

5.  National  games, 

Olympian  games. 

(i)  How  often  held. 

(2)  Different  contests. 

(3)  Influence  of  games. 

6.  The  works  of  Hesiod,  Sappho,  Pindar. 

VII.  The  wars  with  Persia. 

1.  Territory  held  by  Greeks. 

2.  Darius 's  kingdom. 

3.  Cause  of  Darius's  anger  against  the  Greeks. 

(a)  Revolt  of  Ionian  cities. 

(b)  Burning  of  Sardis. 

4.  First  Persian  expedition  against  the  Greeks. 

(a)  Preparations  made  at  Athens  for  defence. 

(b)  Route  taken  by  Persian  forces 

(c)  Disasters  of  the  march. 

5.  Second  Persian  expedition  against  the  Greeks. 

(a)  Demands  made  by  Persians. 


84  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [84 

(b)  Preparations  for  this  expedition. 

(c)  Route  chosen. 

(d)  Preparations  made  by  Greeks  for  defence. 

(e)  Battle  of  Marathon,  490  b.c. 

6.  The  conflicting  measures  proposed  by  Aristides  and 

Themistocles. 

7.  Third  Persian  expedition  against  the  Greeks. 

(a)  Extensive  preparations  made  by  Persians. 

(b)  Route  chosen  and  its  difficulties. 

(c)  Crossing  the  Hellespont. 

(d)  Preparations  made  by  Greeks  for  defence. 

(e)  Battle  of  Thermopylae,  480  B.C. 

(f)  Destruction  of  Athens, 
(g) .  Battle  of  Salamis, 

(h)   Battle  of  Plataea. 
8.   Effect  of  the  war  upon  the  Greeks. 
VIII.  The  re-building  of  Athens,  479-461  b.c. 

1.  Fortification  of  the  city. 

(a)  City  walls  built. 

(b)  Piraeus  surrounded  by  wall. 

2.  Ostracism  of  Themistocles. 

3.  Athens  the  head  of  the  Delian  league. 

Persians  driven  from  ^gean  Sea. 

4.  Cimon  adorns  the  city. 

5.  The  great  sculptors  and  poets. 

(a)  Myron. 

(b)  iEschylus. 

IX.  Age  of  Pericles,  461-431  e.g. 

1.  Ostracism  of  Cimon. 

2.  Building  of  the  Long  Walls. 

3.  Athens  and  her  allies. 

(a)  ^gean  sea  now  an  Athenian  lake. 

(b)  Alhes  pay  tribute  to  Athens. 

4.  Thirty  years'  truce  between  Athens  and  Sparta. 

5.  Government. 

(a)  Power  of  the  archons. 

(b)  Assembly. 

(c)  Power  of  the  generals. 

6.  Funds  of  the   Delian  league  used  to  make   Athens 

beautiful, 
(a)  Theseum. 


85]  History  85 

(b)  Parthenon. 

(c)  Propylaea. 

(d)  Erechtheum. 

(e)  Odeium. 

7.  Home  life  of  the  Athenians. 

8.  Some  of  the  great  men  of  Athens:  Pericles,  Herodotus 

Phidias,  Socrates. 

X    Civil  wars  in  Greece,  431-413  b.c. 
3.    Peloponnesian  War. 

(a)  Allies    of    Athens     and     Sparta     shown  by 

map. 

(b)  Causes  of  the  war. 

(c)  Spartans  invade  Attica. 

(d)  Athenians  attack  coast  of  Laconia. 

(e)  Plague  at  Athens. 

Death  of  Pericles. 

(f)  Surrender  of  Plataea,  427  B.C. 

(g)  Expedition  against  Sicily  led  by  Alcibiades. 
(h)  Athenians  defeated  at  ^Egospotami. 

(i)    Terms  of  peace. 

(j)    Government  of  the  Thirty  at  Athens, 
(k)  Sparta  supreme  m  the  east. 
2.  Thebes  attempts  to  gain  supremacy. 

(a)  Battle  of  Leuctra. 

(i)  Tactics  of  Epaminondas. 
(2)  Spartans  defeated. 

(b)  Battle  of  Mantinea. 

(c)  Results  of  this  battle. 

(d)  Thebes  and  alHed  states  shown  by  map, 

XI    Rise  of  Macedon. 

1.  Geographical  features  of  Macedon. 

2.  The  Macedonians. 

(a)  Homes. 

(b)  Dress 

(c)  Habits. 

3.  Philip's  education  in  Thebes. 

4.  Philip  makes  Macedon  strong. 

(a)  Military  reforms. 

(b)  Annexation  of  coast  cities. 

(c)  Opening  gold  mines. 


86  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [86 

5.   Conquest  of  Greece. 

(a)  The  Sacred  War. 

(b)  Demosthenes's  opposition  to  Macedon. 

(c)  Battle  of  Chaeroneia,  338  b. 
XII.  Alexander's  Empire,  338-146  B.C. 

I.  Alexander's  boyhood. 

a.   Suppression  of  rebellion  in  Greece. 

3.  Conquest  of  Persia. 

(a)  Size  of  army. 

(b)  Battle  on  the  Granicus. 

(c)  Battle  of  Issus. 

(d)  Siege  of  Tyre. 

(e)  Founding  of  Alexandria. 

(f)  Battle  of  Arbela. 

4.  Alexander  becomes  Emperor  of  Persia,  330  B.C. 

(a)  Further  conquests  and  explorations. 

(b)  Improvements  in  government  of  Empire. 

(c)  Re-organization.of  army. 

(d)  Building  of  an  immense  fleet. 

5.  Extent  of  Empire  shown  by  map. 

6.  Breaking  up  of  Empire. 

(a)  Death  of  Alexander,  325  B.C. 

(b)  Empire  divided. 

(c)  Greece  conquered  by  Rome,  146  b.c. 
XIII.  Influence  of  Greek  civilization  on  subsequent  life. 

Roman  History. 

I.  Early  Rome,  753-509  b.c. 

1.  Geographical  features. 

2.  What  the  Romans  thought  of  their  early  history. 

(a)  Founding  of  the  city. 

(b)  Stories  of  the  kings. 

3.  How  the  Roman  people  lived. 

4.  The  growth  of  the  city. 
II.  Rome  as  a  republic. 

1.  The  government. 

2.  The  plebeians  and  what  they  wanted. 

3.  Some  famous  battles  and  leaders. 


Sf\  Hi'^tory  87 

(a)  Lake  Regillus. 

(b)  Sack  of  Rome  by  Gauls. 

(c)  Cincinnatus. 

(d)  Candine  Forks. 

4.  War  with  Pyrrhus. 

5.  Rome  mistress  of  Italy  (map),  266  b.c. 
III.  Rome  and  Carthage. 

1.  Carthage  and  her  people. 

(a)  Location. 

(b)  Founding  of  the  city . 

2.  Strength  of  Rome  and  Carthage  compared. 

3.  First  Pimic  War. 

(a)  Causes — direct  and  indirect. 

(b)  Building  of  Roman  fleet. 

(c)  Battle  of  Mylse. 

(d)  Regulus  in  Africa. 

(e)  Terms  of  peace. 

4.  Second  Punic  War. 

(a)  Cause. 

(b)  Career  of  Hannibal— Victories  and  final  defeat. 

(c)  Conditions  of  peace,  202  b.c. 

5.  Third  Punic  War. 

Destruction  of  Carthage,  146  b.c. 

6.  Extent  of  territory  under  Roman  rule  (map). 
IV.   Rome  extends  her  conquests. 

1.  War  with  Macedonia  and  Greece. 

Occasion  and  results. 

2.  War  with  Antiochus  and  Mithridates. 
V.  Civil  strife  in  Rome. 

1.  The  Gracchi. 

2.  Marius  and  Sulla. 

3.  Caesar  and  Pompey. 

VI.  Rome  as  an  empire,  49  B.C.-14  a.d. 

1.  The  work  of  Julius  Caesar. 

2.  The  second  triiunvirate. 

3.  The  reign  of  Augustus. 

4.  Roman  life  in  the  days  of  Augustus. 

(a)  Homes. 

(b)  Dress. 

(c)  Schools. 


88  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [88 

(d)  Writers  and  books. 

(e)  Buildings. 

(f)  Life  of  the  Forum. 

5,   Extent  of  empire  in  14  a.d. 
VII.  Influence  of  Roman  civilization  on  subsequent  history. 

In  teaching  these  topics  we  have  several  aims  in  view:  first, 
to  give  a  simple  chronological  and  historical  account  of  certain 
events;  second,  to  make  such  names  as  Themistocles,  Pericles, 
and  Caesar  mean  something;  third,  to  give  some  knowledge  of 
the  past  in  order  to  make  comparisons  with  the  present;  fourth, 
to  awaken  interest  in  books  on  history  and  teach  how  to  use 
them;  fifth,  to  gather  and  arrange  historical  material  in  a  simple 
way;  sixth,  to  make  prominent  the  aesthetic,  intellectual,  and 
literary  side  of  Greek  life,  and  the  governmental  and  legal  side 
of  Roman  life. 

Of  the  many  books  on  Greek  history  the  following  have  been 
found  particularly  helpful  to  the  teacher:  Holm's  History  of 
Greece,  Botsford's  History  of  Greece,  and  West's  Ancient  History. 
Other  books  are  often  used  for  special  topics.  The  text-book 
used  by  the  children  is  Guerber's  Story  of  the  Greeks.  Other 
books  in  the  classroom  library  which  the  children  read  in  con- 
nection with  special  topics  are:  Morris's  Historical  Tales, 
Harding's  Greek  Gods,  Heroes,  and  Men,  White's  Plutarch  for 
Boys  and  Girls,  Church's  Stories  of  the  Persian  War,  Church's 
Stories  of  the  Old  World,  White's  Herodottts  for  Boys  and  Girls. 

The  teacher  reads  to  the  class  from  Plutarch,  Herodotus, 
Thucydides,  Bryant's  IHad,  Palmer's  Odyssey,  and  Church's 
Greek  Stories.  The  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  are  made  a  part  of  the 
literature  course.  Pictures  of  scenery  and  of  buildings,  of  gods, 
heroes,  and  great  men  are  in  constant  use.  Maps,  too,  are  used 
in  almost  every  lesson.  Lantern  lessons  are  given  dealing  with 
the  mythological  period,  and  illustrating  the  beauties  of  Athens 
in  the  age  of  Pericles.  An  excursion  is  also  made  to  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  of  Art  to  study  the  Acropolis  and  the  Parthe- 
non. To  impress  still  further  the  glory  of  this  ancient  city  each 
child  mounts  in  a  book  ten  or  more  blue  prints  of  Athens  and 
her  great  men. 

The  Greek  history]  outline  is  given  with  considerable  detail, 
and  only  certain  topics  illustrating  the  method  of  teaching  will 


89]  History  89 

be  described.     It  should  be  remembered,  however,  tliat  all  the 
topics  are  taught  in  a  simple  way. 

TOPIC  I.   ORIENTAL  PEOPLES  NEAR  THE  GREEKS 

On  the  world  map  the  children  locate  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
They  do  this  easily  as  they  have  studied  the  world  as  a  whole  in 
the  fourth  grade.  Then  Eg^^pt,  Phoenicia,  Persia,  and  Greece 
are  located.  After  telling  the  class  something  about  the  valley 
of  the  Nile  and  locating  Thebes,  the  home  life  of  the  Egyptians 
is  described,  and  selections  read  from  Maspero's  Ancient  Egypt 
and  Assyria.  The  discussion  of  the  topic  "How  we  know  the 
early  histor)-  of  the  Egyptians"  brings  to  the  attention  of  the 
class  the  pyramids  and  obelisks,  and  in  a  simple  way  shows  how 
historical  information  is  obtained  from  these  relics  of  ancient 
peoples.  The  children  know  something  of  the  Phoenicians  from 
their  study  of  Early  Trade  and  Discovery  in  the  third  grade. 
The  topics  in  the  outline  add  little  that  is  new,  but  are  stifficient  to 
show  the  marked  characteristics  of  the  people. 

Phoenicia  and  Eg^pt  influenced  Greece  in  her  very  early 
history,  but  Persia  does  not  enter  into  Greek  life  until  a  later 
period.  Therefore,  the  Persian  kingdom  under  Darius  I  is 
given  quite  fully  in  order  that  later  on  intelligent  comparisons 
may  be  made  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians. 

To  get  the  atmosphere  of  the  past  we  contrast  life  in  each  of 
these  three  countries  with  the  present,  and  try  to  form  some 
idea  of  the  limited  knowledge  one  country  must  have  had  of 
another.  This  topic  is  the  introduction  to  the  history  of 
Greece.  It  is  taught  to  "give  certain  knowledge  of  the  countries 
which  influenced  Greece  the  most,  and  to  create  in  some  degree 
the  atmosphere  of  the  past. 

TOPIC  II.       THE  EARLIEST  GREEKS 

The  southern  part  of  Russia  is  located  on  the  map  as  the 
home  of  the  ancestors  of  the  earliest  Greeks.  The  migration 
into  Greece  is  described  by  the  teacher,  and  selections  dealing 
with  the  subject  are  read  to  the  class. 

In  order  to  understand  life  in  early  Greece  the  geographical 
features  must  be  studied.  These  are  taught  from  maps  and 
from  Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geography, which  is  the  text  the  children 


go  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [90 

use  in  their  geography  work.  This  study  of  Greece  should  bring 
out  the  fact  that  sea  and  mountains  protected  the  country  from 
invasions,  while  fine  harbors  encouraged  intercourse  with  other 
countries.  Some  good  accounts  of  life  in  early  Greece  are  read 
to  the  children.  This  is  followed  by  a  discussion  in  which  the 
Greeks  are  compared  with  the  North  American  Indians.  The 
sources  from  which  we  get  our  knowledge  of  ancient  Egypt  have 
already  been  discussed  in  a  simple  way,  and  now  the  children 
are  eager  to  learn  how  we  know  so  much  about  the  Greeks. 
They  are  told  that  we  get  much  of  our  knowledge  from  the  old 
myths  and  from  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey;  that  the  Ihad  and 
the  Odyssey  are  very  old  books  which  people  read  to-day;  that 
for  a  long  time  they  were  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  one 
man,  but  now  are  thought  to  be  the  work  of  many.  The  children 
then  read  the  chapter  on  Homer  in  Guerber's  History,  and  the 
teacher  supplements  this  by  reading  an  account  of  Homer  and 
the  Epic  Age  from  Botsford  or  some  other  standard  historian. 

The  first  topic  assigned  to  the  class  for  study  is  the  "Story  of 
the  Trojan  War."  This  is  done  by  giving  the  children  a  brief 
outline : 

(i)  The  cause  of  the  war.  (2)  Muster  of  the  troops.  (3)  The 
delay  at  Aulis,  etc.  They  are  asked  to  prepare  to  tell  the  story 
following  the  topics.  In  connection  with  these  lessons,  or  after 
they  have  given  the  account  as  fully  as  they  are  able,  the  teacher 
reads  to  them  from  Br}  ant's  Iliad.  Most  of  this  reading  is  done 
as  literature  and  is  much  enjoyed.  Selections  from  Palmer's 
Odyssey  are  also  read,  and  found  even  more  delightful  than  the 
Iliad.  Often  the  children  read  in  both  these  books  for  them- 
selves. Many  of  the  Hawthorne  stories  given  in  the  literature 
course  correlate  with  this  early  history. 

The  next  topic  studied  by  the  class  is,  "What,  according  to 
legend,  did  the  Greeks  learn  from  neighboring  peoples?"  The 
children  know  from  their  study  of  Guerber  the  stories  of  Inachus, 
of  Acrops,  of  Cadmus.  Then  follows  a  discussion  as  to  the 
probable  truth  of  these  myths,  which  always  proves  most 
interesting  and  helpful  to  both  teacher  and  pupils.  The  influ- 
ence which  this  intercourse  with  Phoenicia  and  Egypt  had  on 
the  dail}  life  of  the  Greeks  is  brought  out  in  class  discussion, 
comparing,  point  by  point,  (i)  Food,  (2)  Clothing,  (3)  Homes, 
Habits. 


91  ]  History  91 

TOPIC  III.       GREEK  COLONIZATION  IN  THE  MEDITERRANEAN 

In  the  third  grade  the  children  learned  that  New  York  was 
a  colony  settled  by  the  Dutch.  In  the  fourth  grade  they  studied 
the  lives  of  Winthrop  and  Bradford.  Therefore  they  know- 
that  the  English  and  Dutch  sent  out  colonists.  They  learn,  too, 
from  this  year's  geography  study  that  the  United  Kingdom  has 
many  colonies  at  the  present  time.  All  this  makes  Greek 
colonization  so  many  years  ago  especially  interesting.  We 
attempt  to  get  from  the  children  not  only  the  names  of  the 
colonies  which  they  have  studied,  but  the  reasons  why  they 
were  sent  out.  Then  the  reasons  for  the  settling  of  Greek 
colonies  are  considered.  Most  of  this  must  be  given  by  the 
teacher,  though  the  children  are  allowed  to  suggest  probable 
causes  which  are  discussed  by  the  class.  The  reasons  given  for  the 
settling  of  Greek  colonies  are:  (i)  The  Greeks  on  the  west  coast 
were  mariners  fond  of  adventure.  (2)  Greek  love  of  freedom 
led  them,  if  oppressed,  to  seek  other  homes.  (3)  Cities  sent  out 
colonies  for  trading  purposes.  The  organization  of  a  colony  is 
explained  and  the  history  of  the  planting  of  Chalcidice  is  followed 
to  make  the  work  more  vivid  and  interesting.  The  extent  of 
Greek  colonization  is  shown  on  the  map  with  the  view  of  giving 
the  children  some  conception  as  to  how  the  influence  of  Greek 
culture  came  to  be  so  widespread. 

TOPIC  IV.       EARLY  SPARTA 

Guerber's  Story  of  the  Greeks  gives  a  great  deal  on  this  topic. 
So  considerable  time  is  spent  in  teaching  the  class  how  to  use 
a  text-book.  At  first  topics  are  written  on  the  blackboard  and 
chapters  and  pages  are  given.  After  a  few  lessons  the  children 
are  required  to  find  information  for  themselves  through  the 
index  and  titles  of  chapters.  The  teacher  studies  with  them  in 
the  beginning,  but  very  soon  topics  are  assigned  for  home  study. 
Special  topics  to  be  looked  up  in  particular  books  in  the 
class-room  library  are  sometimes  given  to  individuals.  This  is 
frequently  done  later  in  the  year.  Selections  from  Plutarch's 
"  Lycurgus  "  are  read  to  the  class.  This  is  the  beginning  of  an 
acquaintance  with  this  ancient  writer  which  continues  through- 
out the  year.  The  children  are  told  something  of  Plutarch,  and 
that  Plutarch's  "  Lives  "  is  one  of  the  sources  of  information 


92  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [92 

used  by  historians.  Experience  proves  that  they  are  always 
much  interested  to  know  what  Plutarch  says  of  the  great  men  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  This  topic  furnishes  excellent  material  for 
composition  work,  "The  Training  of  Spartan  Boys,"  "Aris- 
tomenes's  Attempt  to  Free  Messenia"  are  two  subjects  which 
have  been  used  with  good  results.  An  oral  review  followed  by  a 
few  written  questions  concludes  the  work  on  early  Sparta.  The 
written  questions  require  brief  answers,  but  are  intended  to  bring 
out  the  essential  points. 

TOPIC  V.       EARLY  ATHENS 

The  history  of  early  Athens  is  much  more  difficult  to  under- 
stand than  that  of  Sparta.  Therefore  the  teacher  must  give  to 
the  class  practically  all  the  information  which  the  topics  demand. 
Each  one  is  treated  in  a  very  simple  way.  Solon's  laws  are  con- 
sidered as  attempts  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  poor  and 
only  a  few  are  mentioned.  The  contrasts  between  Athens  and 
Sparta  are  brought  out  point  by  point  and  the  advantages  of 
each  state  discussed. 

TOPIC  IX.       AGE  OF  PERICLES 

Time  enough  is  spent  on  this  topic  to  make  it  apparent  that 
the  Athenians  at  this  period  were  prosperous,  enterprising,  and 
highly  cultured,  and  that  Athens  was  a  very  beautiful  city. 
The  rebuilding  of  Athens  is  taught  as  an  introduction  to  this 
most  glorious  period  of  Greek  history.  The  children  get  as  much 
information  for  themselves  as  possible  from  Guerber,  and  from 
books  at  home  and  in  the  class-room  library.  The  teacher 
reads  to  them  from  Plutarch's  "  Pericles,"  and  supplies  as 
much  additional  information  as  is  needed  to  give  a  picture 
of  Athenian  home  life.  The  home  life  of  the  Athenians  of 
Pericles's  time  is  contrasted  with  life  in  early  Athens,  and  also 
with  our  own  home  life. 

Pictures  and  lantern  slides  of  the  Parthenon,  and  the  Erech- 
theum,  are  studied  to  show  the  beauty  of  the  city.  The  class 
visits  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  to  see  the  models  of  the 
Acropolis  and  the  Parthenon.  This  excursion  has  proven  to  be  of 
great  value  not  only  for  the  information  the  children  get,  but 
also  for  the  interest  which  it  arouses  in  Greek  life. 

Last  of  all,  the  lives  of  the  great  men  of  this  period  and 


93]  History  93 

what  they  did  for  Athens  are  considered.  This  gives  an  oppor- 
tunity to  bring  out  the  patriotism,  enterprise,  and  education  of 
the  Athenians,  and  to  compare  the  great  men  of  Athens  with 
the  great  men  of  modem  times.  It  is  also  easy  to  show  in  a 
simple  way  that  the  people  of  to-day  owe  much  to  the  Athens  of 
Pericles. 

The  general  method  used  can  be  summarized  briefly.  The 
children  are  taught  to  use  a  text-book,  and  to  look  up  references 
in  other  books,  topics  and  pages  being  given.  They  are  taught  to 
make  outlines  of  large  topics,  the  Persian  wars  and  Alexander's 
conquests  furnishing  particularly  good  material  for  this  kind  of 
work.  Some  topics  are  given  entirely  by  the  teacher,  for  others 
the  children  gather  nearly  all  the  information  needed.  The 
teacher  often  reads  to  the  class  from  modem  histories  and  from 
original  sources.  Maps  are  used  in  practically  every  lesson. 
Pictures,  too,  are  often  placed  before  the  class  for  study  and 
enjoyment.  Some  half  dozen  or  more  important  dates  are 
memorized.  Biographies  of  great  men  are  studied  to  bring  out 
Greek  characteristics.  Frequent  reviews  are  given,  both  oral 
and  written,  and  many  composition  subjects  are  taken  from 
the  history.  The  lesson  often  takes  the  form  of  a  discussion,  if 
the  children  have  sufficient  knowledge  to  talk  intelligently. 
Questions  from  the  class  are  always  welcomed.  Compari- 
sons are  made  between  the  past  and  present  and  the  fact  is 
emphasized  that  we  of  to-day  owe  much  to  the  old  Greek 
civilization. 

The  method  used  in  teaching  the  history  of  Rome  is  essen- 
tially the  same  as  that  which  has  been  described  for  the  teaching 
of  Greek  history. 

M.  G.  P. 


NATURE-STUDY 
Grade  V 

Before  the  child  reaches  the  fifth  grade  he  is  familiar  with 
many  of  our  common  birds  and  trees,  the  interest  in  both 
having  been  aroused  in  the  primary  grades.  He  is  now  ready  for 
a  more  extensive  and  at  the  same  time  intensive  study  of  these 
subjects,  with  especial  emphasis  upon  their  relation  to  man. 
In  this  grade,  as  in  fact  in  all  others  in  the  elementary  school, 
three  aims  are  prominent:  (a)  to  give  general  acquaintance  and 
interest,  (b)  to  develop  habits  of  careful  observation  and 
reasoning,  and  (c)  to  give  some  useful  knowledge  concerning 
common  natural  things  as  they  affect  "human  interests." 

The  time  allowed  is  about  one  hour  a  week  (three  twenty- 
minute  or  two  thirty-minute  periods),  although  much  is  done 
in  addition  to  this  out  of  school. 

Trees.     The  work  on  trees  is  begun  early  in  the  fall  and  is 
based  on  the  following  outline: 
I.     Forest  Culture. 

a.  Need  of  forestry. 

b.  History  of  forestry. 

c.  U.  S.  Reservations. 

d.  Forest  Service. 

e.  Forester's  duties. 

f.  Uses  of  timber. 
II  .     Life  of  a  tree. 

a.  Parts. 

b.  Food. 

c.  Breathing. 

d.  Structure  of  wood  and  growth. 

e.  Reproduction    and    cultivation. 
III.     Trees  in  a  Forest. 

a.  Various  requirements. 

b.  Rate  of  growth. 

c.  Reproductive    power. 

d.  Pure  and  mixed  forests. 

94l  94 


95]  Nature-Study  95 

IV.     Life  of  a  Forest. 

a.  Beginning  of  crop. 

b.  Struggle  for  existence  and  survival  of  fittest. 

c.  Natural  pruning. 

d.  Enemies. 

e.  Culmination  of  growth. 

The  beginning  of  the  study  of  "Forest  Culture"  is  taken 
up  in  connection  with  geography.  The  influence  of  forests 
upon  streams  is  discussed  as  well  as  their  tendency  to  prevent 
floods  and  drought  and  thus  protect  agriculture.  This  makes 
clear  the  importance  of  forests,  shows  why  they  should  not  be 
recklessly  destroyed,  and  explains  the  necessity  of  organi- 
zations such  as  the  United  States  Forest  Service.  The  children 
are  given  some  idea  of  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  work  of  this 
body,  and  some  of  them,  through  study  or  travel,  know  some- 
thing about  the  German  forester  and  can  tell  something  of  his 
work. 

The  uses  of  timber  are  also  emphasized.  Our  dependence 
upon  wood  for  fuel  and  upon  lumber  for  building  is  not  a  new 
thought  to  the  children,  but  they  have  little  appreciation  of 
the  greatness  of  our  indebtedness  to  the  products  of  the  forest 
until  their  attention  has  been  called  to  innumerable  things  in 
our  modem  civilization  that  owe  their  present  advanced  con- 
dition to  the  use  of  lumber — such  as  our  cities,  our  railroads 
our  steamship  lines. 

While  the  above  lessons  have  been  given,  the  pupils  have 
been  collecting  the  fniits,  leaves,  and  branches  of  the  trees  and 
each  child  has  not  only  the  pressed  leaf,  but  a  picture  of  the 
leaf,  flower,  and  fruit  of  each  tree.  The  Manual  Training 
Department  could  assist  here  in  the  making  of  leaf  presses. 

The  "Life  of  a  Tree"  proves  a  most  interesting  topic.  The 
functions  of  the  roots,  the  trunk,  and  the  crown  are  studied. 
How  the  tree  gets  its  food,  how  it  breathes,  how  it  grows,  are 
questions  that  are  discussed  in  an  elementary  way.  Simple 
experiments,  such  as  covering  a  plant  with  a  bell  jar,  show  the 
pupils  that  the  roots  take  up  more  water  than  the  plant  re- 
quires and  that  this  water  is  disposed  of  by  evaporation  from 
all  parts  above  ground.  This  leads  up  to  the  general  topic  of 
tree    transpiration    and    its    effects.       Drawings    and    sections 


^6  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [96 

shown  under  the  microscope  give  a  vivid  idea  of  wood 
structure. 

The  reproduction  of  trees,  while  touched  upon  in  the  fall 
study,  properly  belongs  to  the  springtime  when  the  window- 
box  is  used  to  illustrate  the  two  methods,  that  of  reproduction 
from  seeds  and  from  sprouts.  The  fact  that  seeds  are  dissemi- 
nated b}'-  means  of  the  wind  and  water,  by  birds,  squirrels,  fur- 
bearing  animals,  and  by  people  is  brought  out  through  discussion. 

"Trees  in  the  Forest"  appeals  to  the  child  as  no  other  topic 
in  the  course  does,  for  here  the  Ufe  side  is  most  noticeable.  The 
various  requirements  of  the  trees  are  noted.  Comparison  is 
made  of  trees  growing  on  the  north  side  of  a  slope  with  those 
on  the  south  side;  of  those  growing  in  the  heart  of  the  forest 
with  those  on  the  margins;  of  those  on  a  dry  slope  with  those 
in  a  wet  meadow.  In  the  study  of  the  tree's  struggle  for  exist- 
ence the  child  realizes  fully  that  a  tree  is  a  hving  thing,  and 
the  stronger  and  more  perfect,  the  greater  its  opportunity  in 
the  life  of  the  forest. 

The  difference  between  our  local  woods  and  a  real  forest 
can  be  brought  out  by  some  personal  experience  of  a  traveller 
or  by  stereopticon  views  of  our  great  reservations.  Here 
statistics  are  useful.  This  general  work  on  "Forestry"  is 
followed  by  a  somewhat  detailed  study  of  our  native  trees.  The 
results  of  the  study  are: 

1.  An  insight  into  some  of  our  civic  problems. 

2.  An  increased  knowledge  of  each  tree  and  its  use. 

3.  An  interest  in  the  life  side  of  a  tree. 

4.  Less  of  the  ruthless  destruction  of  our  trees  whose  foliage 

and  flowers  beautify  the  landscape. 

Birds.  The  tree  work  is  followed  by  the  regular  bird  study, 
although  the  fall  migrations  have  been  noticed  and  constant 
reference  has  been  made  to  the  early  winter  birds. 

The  following  outline  has  been  the  basis  for  the  work  for 
three  years: 

Birds — Autumn,  winter,  and  spring — parallel  with  studies 
of  trees:  (a)  Study  living  and  mounted  birds  in  schoolroom  in 
order  to  give  acquaintance  with  general  form,  parts,  and  uses 
of  the  body,  (b)  Field  studies  of  common  birds — identification, 
movements,  migration,  food,  records  of  observations.  In- 
dividual work  should  be  stimulated,     (c)  Studies  of  habits  of 


97]  Nature-Study  97 

young  chicks  and  ducks,  (d)  If  possible,  class  should  visit 
Zoological  Park  to  observe  some  of  the  striking  modifications 
of  birds  in  adaptation  to  habits  of  life,  (e)  Economic  relations 
of  some  common  birds;  value  of  our  domestic  birds;  bird  pro- 
tection by  special  societies  and  laws;  birds  for  decoration. 

The  class  work  begins  early  in  the  year  with  some  discussion 
of  the  main  topic,  "  Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Man."  Here  we 
attempt  to  draw  together  and  organize  the  facts  based  on  the 
experience  of  pupils  of  the  class  and  at  the  same  time  show  them 
that  birds  are  worth  studying.  This  introduction  does  not  fail 
to  arouse  great  interest,  and  thus  a  good  start  in  bird  study  is 
made.  A  small  proportion  of  the  time  is  given  to  this  intro- 
duction, but  it  is  strongly  emphasized  throughout  the  course 
when  the  habits  of  each  bird  are  studied.  The  result  is  that  the 
pupils  realize  the  beneficial  relation  of  the  birds  to  agriculture, 
the  important  service  they  perform  as  scavengers,  and  the  much 
needed  protection  of  our  game  and  song  birds. 

The  injurious  relation  to  man  must  of  course  be  mentioned. 
Here  arises  opportunity  for  the  cultivation  of  good  judgment 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil  when  he  is  allowed,  after  carefully 
weighing  both  sides,  to  decide  if  the  destruction  of  certain 
birds  is  justifiable. 

The  introduction  is  followed  by  some  study  of  bird  structure, 
which  is  needed  for  field  work  and  for  identifying  birds.  In  this 
work  Hve  pigeons  and  parrots,  stuffed  birds,  bird  skins,  skeletons, 
and  charts  are  used.  The  chief  external  parts  of  the  bird's 
body  are  studied  for  their  uses. 

During  the  autumn  and  winter  blackboard  records  are 
kept  of  individual  observations  of  fall  migrations  and  winter 
birds.  These  can  never  be  accurate  because  they  are  made 
by  untrained  observers  in  various  places.  All  reasonable  ones 
are  accepted  for  the  sole  purpose  of  arousing  and  keeping  alive 
the  interest  in  the  study  and  encouraging  outdoor  activity. 

Sections  of  the  class  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher  make 
excursions,  often  before  school  in  the  morning,  to  Central  Park 
where  careful  observations  are  made.  Twenty-seven  different 
kinds  of  birds  have  been  accurately  identified  in  a  single  morning. 
Strong  emphasis  is  placed  upon  accuracy,  and  doubtful  obser- 
vations reported  to  the  class  are  noted  on  the  blackboard  as 
demanding  more  evidence. 


gS  Elementary  School  Curriculum  [98 

Constant  reference  is  made  to  a  set  of  colored  pictures, 
arranged  for  the  purpose  of  easy  inspection,  as  a  frieze  around 
the  room.  These  are  placed  in  the  order  of  the  spring  arrival 
-of  the  birds.  Stuffed  specimens  such  as  are  not  available  at 
Teachers  College  are  loaned  by  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
giving  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  coloring  than  can  be 
obtained  from  the  bird  in  his  native  haunts  or  from  even  the  best 
colored  plates. 

Certain  bird  games  have  been  tried  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
the  memory  and  familiarity  with  the  subject.  In  one  game 
where  seventy-two  birds  were  to  be  identified  in  a  given  time 
from  stuffed  specimens  and  pictures,  more  than  two-thirds  of 
the  class  knew  half  the  number  and  one  pupil  knew  sixty- 
seven  of  the  seventy-two. 

That  the  interest  and  active  work  often  continues  after  the 
pupil  leaves  the  fifth  grade  is  shown  by  the  collection  of  old 
nest  eggs,  and  other  interesting  materials  brought  in  by  former 
pupils  of  this  grade.  A  few  years  ago,  at  the  suggestion  of  some 
of  the  enthusiastic  pupils,  a  Nature  Club  was  formed  in  order 
that  the  work  begun  in  the  fifth  grade  might  be  continued. 
The  club  at  present  has  twenty  members  from  the  high  school 
and  upper  grades.  The  meetings  are  held  twice  a  month  and 
many  very  good  papers  written  by  the  members  have  been  read 
and  discussed.  The  class-rooms  and  specimens  at  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History  have  been  kindly  opened  to  the  Club,  and 
much  interesting  and  profitable  work  has  been  done  there. 
Every  applicant  for  membership  must  write  an  original  paper 
showing  some  knowledge  of  birds.  That  the  Club  has  a  waiting 
list  of  nearly  one  dozen  children  testifies  to  the  continued  interest 
in  this  study. 

The  bird-work  offers  excellent  opportunity  for  correlation 
with  art,  language,  and  literature.  Selections  from  John 
Burroughs,  WilHam  J.  Long,  and  Florence  Merriam  have  been 
used  in  the  reading  lessons  (not  as  nature-study) .  The  following 
poems  have  been  found  helpful,  many  of  them  having  been 
memorized  by  the  class:  Bryant's  "Robert  of  Lincoln";  Thax- 
ter's  "Robin"  and  "Sandpiper";  Drake's  "Mocking-bird's 
Song";  Carey's  "Blackbird";  Coolidge's  "Discontent";  Long- 
fellow's "Birds  of  Killingworth "  and  "Birds  of  Passage"; 
Holland's  "Life  in  the  Nest";  Lowell's  "The  Nest";  Larcom's 


99]  Nature-Study  99 

"Brown  Thrush,"  "Snow  Bird,"  "Birds  with  Bosom  Red"; 
Van  Dyke's  "Veery,"  "Song  Sparrow,"  "Maryland  Yellow 
Throat,"  "Whip-poor-will." 

During  the  year,  snails,  slugs,  tadpoles,  fishes,  Hzards,  ants, 
caddises,  and  moths  are  kept  in  the  class-room  for  observation 
and  occasional  lessons.  This  results  in  individual  observations, 
many  long  tramps  through  marshes  and  meadows,  and  the 
collection  of  valuable  material. 

The  chief  object  in  the  study  of  birds,  trees,  aquaria  and 
vivaria  is  to  emphasize  the  relation  which  animals  and  trees 
bear  to  man,  to  impress  upon  the  child's  mind  that  they  have 
a  life  work,  and  to  create  a  sympathy  and  a  deeper  feeling  which 
will  result  in  personal  protection.  Besides  this  we  feel  that  one 
of  the  most  important  results  of  the  work  is  the  constant  training 
in  accuracy,  not  only  of  eye  and  ear,  but  accuracy  of  statement, 
which  affects  all  other  branches  of  study  in  this  grade.  Here 
is  certainly  something  of  practical  value  in  the  nature  work 
of  the  present  day. 

Bibliography.  The  following  list  of  books  and  pamphlets  has 
been  found  especially  helpful: 

Study  of   Trees.     Huntington.     (Knight  &   Millette.) 
Our  Native    Trees.     Keeler.      (Scj.ibners.) 
Trees  of  New  England.     Dame  an^  Brooks.      (Ginn  &  Co.) 
Primer  of  Forestry.     Pinchot.      (U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture.) 
Among  Green  Trees.     Rogers.      (A.  W.  Alumford.) 
Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Man.     (Weed  &  Dearborn.) 
Bird   Life.     Chapman.    (Appleton.) 
Bird  Homes.     Dugmore.     (Doubleday  &  McClure.) 
First  Book  of  Birds.      Olive  Thorn  Miller.      (Houghton,  Mif- 
flin &  Co.) 
Second  Book  of  Birds.     Olive  Thorn  ]\Iiller.    (Houghton,  ]\lif- 

fiin  &  Co.) 
Bird  Life  Stories.     Weed.     (Rand,  McNally  &  Co.) 
Man}^  helpful   bulletins   are   issued   by   the    Department   of 
Agriculture.     The    following    have    been    successfully   used    by 
the  pupils:  "Four  Common  Birds";  "Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers"; 

"Food  of  Nesting  Birds." 

L.  B.  U. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 

Grade  V 

The  study  of  the  domestic  occupations  of  the  pioneer  colonial 
home  in  the  preceding  year  leads  directly  to  the  work  in  this 
grade  and  forms  a  basis  for  comparison.  In  the  fourth  grade 
the  situation  presented  is  that  of  the  independent  household 
where  almost  all,  if  not  all,  the  work  of  production  and  manu- 
facture is  accomplished  by  the  different  members  of  the  house- 
hold, the  men  building  the  houses,  raising  the  crops,  and  caring 
for  the  cattle ;  the  women  attending  to  the  preparation  of  food, 
spinning,  weaving  cloth,  and  making  clothes. 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  picture  of  a  later  stage  is  presented, 
when  the  size  of  settlements  had  increased,  and  villages  and 
towns  had  developed.  Under  these  conditions  it  was  not  possi- 
ble for  each  household  to  produce  all  it  needed,  and  so  it  came 
about  that  one  set  of  people  raised  the  raw  materials  while 
another  set  converted  them  into  commodities  for  exchange  or 
sale.  This  was  still  the  period  before  the  introduction  of  power 
and  machinery,  and  the  time  when  handicraft  was  the  method 
of  production.  Exchange  was  at  first  very  direct,  and  largely 
a  matter  of  barter.  It  was  almost  purely  a  local  affair,  where 
the  buyer  went  not  to  a  merchant  but  directly  to  the  individual 
who  produced  the  article  desired,  he  being  both  producer  and 
merchant  combined.  These  ideas  are  presented  to  the  children 
in  class  discussions.  Much  of  the  development  they  are  able  to 
trace  from  their  past  study.  The  emphasis  is  placed  more  than 
it  has  been  heretofore  on  the  relation  between  production  and 
consumption. 

The  actual  constructive  work  of  the  grade  deals  to  a  large 
extent  with  certain  forms  of  handicraft  which  involve  distinct 
artistic  possibiHties,  usually  pottery  or  basketry.  The  children 
come  to  this  grade  with  some  knowledge  and  experience  in  both 
these  subjects.  In  fact  many  of  the  processes  are  the  same 
as  they  have  worked  out  in  a  crude  way  in  the  earlier  grades. 
It  is,  therefore,  possible  for  them  to  direct  their  efforts  to  the 
making  of  articles  having  artistic  merit   in   form,   proportion, 

lOO]  lOO 


lOl] 


Manual  Training 


lOI 


color,  and  design.  Both  woven  and  coiled  baskets  are  made, 
and  reed  and  raffia  form  the  principal  materials  used.  If  the 
children  are  not  already  familiar  with  these  materials,  facts 
about  the  sources  from  which  they  are  obtained,  and  their  manner 
of  growth  and  preparation  for  use,  are  taught. 

The  woven  baskets  are  either  entirely  of  colored  reed,  or 
have  spokes  of  flat  reed  woven  with  raffia.  The  wicker  and 
twined  weaves  are  both  used  in  making  the  baskets,  and  the 
braided  and  rope  borders  in  finishing  off  the  tops.  Methods 
of  making  and    fastening  on   covers,    as  well   as   braided    and 


Woven  Baskets 

twisted  handles,  are  also  considered.  Before  making  a  basket 
the  children  design  (within  certain  limitations)  and  cut  from 
paper  the  shape  to  be  made,  and  plan  the  placing  of  any  deco- 
ration which  is  to  be  used.  This  consists  either  of  bands  woven  of 
a  different  colored  reed,  or  some  simple  spotted  or  striped  effect 
to  be  produced  by  the  twined  weave.  When  working  the  chil- 
dren have  their  patterns  constantly  before  them,  take  all  their 
measurements  from  them,  and  approach  them  in  results  as 
nearly  as  they  are  able. 

The  control  of  material,  and  tlie  ability  to  produce  the  par- 
ticular form  desired,  are  the  ends  in  view  in  this  work.  The 
first  baskets  made  are  necessarily  unsatisfactory  because  in 
these  first  attempts  technical  processes  must  be  learned  as  well 
as  skill  in  manipulation. 


I02  Elementary  School  Curriculuin  [102 

Coiled  baskets  may  assume  several  different  forms,  the  most 
common  being  those  made  of  the  Lazy  Squaw,  Navajo,  or 
similar  stitches.  As  in  the  woven  baskets,  the  children  design 
both  the  shapes  and  the  decoration,  which  may  assume  the  form 
of  bands  or  spots  of  a  different  color  from  that  of  the  main  part 
of  the  basket.     In  the  latter  great  variety  is  possible. 

Pottery  is  carried  on  in  much  the  same  w^ay  as  basketry. 
Facts  about  the  composition  of  clay,  the  sources  from  which 
the  material  is  secured,  the  form  in  which  it  is  found,  its  prepar- 
ation for  use,  and  its  characteristic  qualities  are  taught.  Clay 
is  always  an  intensely  interesting  material  to  children,  and  as 
a  rule  the  average  fifth  grade  boy  and  girl  knows  more  about  it 


Pottery 

than  he  is  given  credit  for.  By  simple  processes  of  hand-building, 
fern-dishes,  trays,  bowls,  candlesticks,  vases,  tiles,  and  various 
other  useful  articles  are  made  and  decorated  both  with  incised 
designs  and  by  the  application  of  color,  either  in  the  form  of 
slip  or  glaze.  At  first  the  children  are  limited  to  perhaps  one 
shape  for  a  single  piece.  The  size  and  proportion  may  be  left 
to  them,  after  a  few  suggestions  have  been  made  by  the  teacher. 
Later  more  liberty  of  choice  is  allowed,  and  still  later  th  y  work 
from  forms  which  they  have  designed  in  the  art  class.  The 
pattern  for  bands  and  borders  are  also  worked  out  there,  and 
color  schemes  suggested. 

Before   the   first   biscuit -firing  takes   place,   the   subject   of 
"firing"  is  discussed,  and  the  children  see  the  kiln,  and  learn 


I03] 


Manual  Training 


103 


about  its  workings.  Groups  assist  in  stacking  the  kiln,  taking 
turns  until  each  child  has  had  some  experience,  and  then  all 
the  children  see  the  kiln  again  during  the  firing.  They  learn 
at  what  temperature  the  clay  is  fired,  how  long  a  time  is  re- 
quired, and  the  system  of  cones  used  in  determining  these 
points.  Mixing  and  applying  the  glaze  or  slip  is  always  an 
interesting  feature  of  pottery  work.  The  former  involves  some 
vigorous  exercise,  and  some  good  experience  in  careful  weighing. 
Later  in  the  year  the  children  experiment  with  a  potter's 
wheel,  and  have  opportunity  to  see  a  good  demonstration  of  it's 


Living  Room 

use  by  an  expert  potter  who  comes  to  the  school  and  works 
before  them.  They  also  see  a  demonstration  of  the  making  of 
a  piece  of  pottery  in  a  mould,  and  the  process  of  making  a  plaster 
cast.  When  possible,  a  large  pottery  is  visited  so  that  the 
children  may  see  the  machinery  by  means  of  which  much  of  the 
modern  ware  is  produced.  With  this  consideration  of  pottery 
as  a  present-day  industry  the  subject  comes  to  an  end. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  the  boys  and  girls  are  divided, 
the  girls  taking  up  sewing,  and  the  boys  woodwork.  Their 
interests,  however,  are  still  centered  in  the  accomplishment  of 


I04 


Elementary  School  Curriculum  [104 


one  piece  of  work,  that  being  the  building  of  a  house  consisting 

of  several  rooms,  and  furnishing  the  same.     The  building  repre. 

sents  simple    frame-house    construction,    and    carries    forward 

the  development  of  types  of  shelter  under  consideration.     The 

furnishing  presents  many  opportunities  for  artistic  expression, 

and  the  application  to  other  materials  of  principles  used  during 

the  5^ear's  work.     Problems  of  design,   of  proportion,   and   of 

color  are  considered  and  worked  out  by  the  children.     The  boys, 

of  course,  do  the  woodwork  in  connection   with    the  problem, 

while   the   girls   make   the   curtains,   draperies,   pillows,   scarfs, 

and  rugs.     When  there  is  not  sufficient  time  to  build  the  entire 

house,  a  single  feature,  such  as  a  room,  is  sometimes  chosen  and 

executed.     (See  illustration,  p.    103).     This,  however,  is  done 

only  after  the  house  and   its  construction  have  been  discussed 

as  a  whole. 

L.  H.  W. 

TIME  SCHEDULE 

Grade  V 

Number  of  minutes  per  week  devoted  to  the  various  activities: 

Language        | 

Composition    - 15° 

Spelling  \ 

Literature  and  Reading 9° 

Penmanship. 45 

Arithmetic ^25 

Geography ^00 

Nature-Study 60 

History 8c 

Manual  Training 9° 

Art 70 

Music ' 60 

Physical  Education 9° 

Recess 75 

Opening  Exercises 75 


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